INTRODUCTION
In recent years modern Governments have experienced a great change in their functions and responsibilities. In the changed context the role of Public Administration has become all the more crucial in fulfilling the goals of the government. Consequently, administrative theories and models have become all the more important to the understanding of it. The ecological approach to the study of administration has been suggested when Western organisation theories have been found inadequate for the study of the problems of administration in the Third World Countries.
After the 'Second World War' many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America were liberated from colonial rule. They were faced with the task of nation-building and socio-economic transformation to fulfil their people's aspirations. The Western scholars who acted as consultants to many of these countries found that western organizational models failed to explain the reality in Third World Societies. This realisation resulted in the development of new concepts and approaches including the ecological one.
OBJECTIVE:
1. Explain the environmental influences - social, economic and political in the administrative system with particular reference lo transitional societies', and
2. Explain the views of Fred W. Riggs on administrative system of transitional societies like India.
OBJECTIVE:
1. Explain the environmental influences - social, economic and political in the administrative system with particular reference lo transitional societies', and
2. Explain the views of Fred W. Riggs on administrative system of transitional societies like India.
MEANING ECOLOGICAL APPROACH
Administration does not function in isolation from its environment. It influences it and is influenced by it. The understanding of the dynamics of this process of interaction between the two is necessary for the understanding of the administration. The approach adopted is known as the ecological approach.
Administration does not function in isolation from its environment. It influences it and is influenced by it. The understanding of the dynamics of this process of interaction between the two is necessary for the understanding of the administration. The approach adopted is known as the ecological approach.
Ecology is a term borrowed from Biology. It is concerned with the science dealing with the inter-relationship of organisms and their environment. It is a study of the interplay of living organisms and their physical and social environment. It is concerned with the question of how a balance involving organisms and environment is achieved for survival. In Biology, it is established that particular plant requires for its growth a particular climate, soil, humidity, temperature, etc. A plant that can grow well in a particular ciimate cannot do so under a different climate.
Likewise the growth or development of each society is conditioned by its own history, economic structure, values, political system, etc. The characteristics of its social system and its physical , environment shape the ideas and institutions. Just as a plant cannot grow in a different environment; so also all institution cannot thrive in a different social setting. Thus to understand the ecology of Public Administration i.e., the interaction of administration and its environment, it is necessary to have an understanding of the society and the various factors affecting its functioning.
FRED W. RIGGS' VIEWS
The ecological approach to the study of Public Administration was initiated by J.M. Caus, Robert A. Dahl and Robert A. Merton long before Fred W. Riggs. But it was Riggs who made a significant contribution to this approach. Fred W. Riggs, a distinguished American scholar and consultant to many developing countries, developed the ecological concept based on his studies in Thailand, Philippines and India.
The ecological approach to the study of Public Administration was initiated by J.M. Caus, Robert A. Dahl and Robert A. Merton long before Fred W. Riggs. But it was Riggs who made a significant contribution to this approach. Fred W. Riggs, a distinguished American scholar and consultant to many developing countries, developed the ecological concept based on his studies in Thailand, Philippines and India.
In his study of the administrative systems of developing societies Riggs analysed the relationship between the administration and the economic, social, technological, political and communication factors from a wide perspective.
Riggs raised the basic questions about the relevance of Western organisation theories to the developing countries. He pointed out that each society has certain unique characteristics which influence the working of its sub-systems. He found that most of the Western theories look "inside" the system. The "outside" refers to the general socio-economic environment.
As you are aware the socio-economic environment in Western developed countries is not the same as that in the Third World Countries. That is why, as observed by Riggs, the theories or models developed for the former seem inapplicable to the latter. The findings of Riggs, therefore are considered a significant contribution to the understanding of administrative systems in the Third World Countries. Based on them he has broadened the analytical frame for the examination of the administrative systems in Third World Countries.
As you are aware the socio-economic environment in Western developed countries is not the same as that in the Third World Countries. That is why, as observed by Riggs, the theories or models developed for the former seem inapplicable to the latter. The findings of Riggs, therefore are considered a significant contribution to the understanding of administrative systems in the Third World Countries. Based on them he has broadened the analytical frame for the examination of the administrative systems in Third World Countries.
IDEAL MODELS
The concept of ecological approach adopts a systems approach to the understanding of the phenomena. The systems approach refers to the method of treating the phenomena as an integrated whole consisting of interdependent parts. In spite of concentrating on one aspect of the society, the ecological approach takes the wholistic view of the organisation. This is the reason why Riggs has categorised the broad systems at the macro level and attempted to apply those categories to the micro-sub-systems such as administration. He took the global systems as a frame of reference for his categorization and developed three ideal models viz., Fused, Prismatic and Diffracted to explain the change in the transitional societies. The ideal models of Riggs are hypothetical assumptions aimed at analysing pre-historic, developing and developed societies.
The concept of ecological approach adopts a systems approach to the understanding of the phenomena. The systems approach refers to the method of treating the phenomena as an integrated whole consisting of interdependent parts. In spite of concentrating on one aspect of the society, the ecological approach takes the wholistic view of the organisation. This is the reason why Riggs has categorised the broad systems at the macro level and attempted to apply those categories to the micro-sub-systems such as administration. He took the global systems as a frame of reference for his categorization and developed three ideal models viz., Fused, Prismatic and Diffracted to explain the change in the transitional societies. The ideal models of Riggs are hypothetical assumptions aimed at analysing pre-historic, developing and developed societies.
The process of transition of a ray through a prism is taken symbolically to explain the process of transformation of a society. The starting point of the ray is taken as fused, the process of vibration of the ray within the prism is called prismatic and finally the process where by the ray comes out of the prism to project a rainbow is called diffraction.
Likewise, various social systems in the early stages of the process of development would be fused; prisrmatic in the transitional stage and finaly diffracted at the end, as explained by Riggs. Riggs created models on the basis of structural und functional approaches. Accordingly, in a fused society a single structure carries out various functions. In contrast, in a diffracted society separate structures are created to carry out specific functions. But between these two there exist a number of societies in which the characteristics of both fused and diffracted societies are found side by side. Such societies are called prismatic societies.
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However, Riggs emphasizes that no society can be exclusively called either fused or diffracted, all societies are generally prismatic in nature. The character of a society be it fused or diffracted depends on the nature of its various structures and the functions carried out by them.
1. Fused Model
Riggs selected Imperial China and the pre-revolutionary Siamese Thailand as examples of his concept of fused society. These societies had no classification of functions and a single structure carried out a number of functions. These societies heavily depended upon agriculture, knowing no industrialization or modernization. Their economic system was based on the law of exchange and barter system which was called a 'redistributive model' by Riggs. The Royal family played a very important role in the administration of the country. The King and the officials nominated by him carried out all administrative, economic and other activities by themselves.
Riggs selected Imperial China and the pre-revolutionary Siamese Thailand as examples of his concept of fused society. These societies had no classification of functions and a single structure carried out a number of functions. These societies heavily depended upon agriculture, knowing no industrialization or modernization. Their economic system was based on the law of exchange and barter system which was called a 'redistributive model' by Riggs. The Royal family played a very important role in the administration of the country. The King and the officials nominated by him carried out all administrative, economic and other activities by themselves.
No separate structures existed to manage the economic and administrative affairs. The relation between the government and the people were generally at low ebb. People showed respect to the King by offering their services and presenting material goods to him without expecting anything in return. The government was not responsible and accountable to the people though the public had an obligation to obey the dictates of the government.
The family played a prominent role in the Siamese Kingdom. It used to carry out a variety of economic, political and social functions. Apart from providing the base to the social structure, it stood at the apex of the administration. As a result, the administration in these societies strove to protect the special interests of the family and certain sects rather than aim at universal happiness and development. Indeed, the administrative system was based on the structure of the family and special sects and helped to preserve the system. Generally, these societies tended to be static with no developed communication systems. People would have no demands and never raised any issue with the government. The King and his nominees enjoyed absolute power which they generally used to protect their own personal interests. These societies did not differentiate between formal and informal set-ups, governmental and non-governmental activities.
Ascriptive values played a predominant role in the society, and the behaviour of the people was highly traditional. Age-old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways of living enabled the people to live together and control their behaviour.
The family played a prominent role in the Siamese Kingdom. It used to carry out a variety of economic, political and social functions. Apart from providing the base to the social structure, it stood at the apex of the administration. As a result, the administration in these societies strove to protect the special interests of the family and certain sects rather than aim at universal happiness and development. Indeed, the administrative system was based on the structure of the family and special sects and helped to preserve the system. Generally, these societies tended to be static with no developed communication systems. People would have no demands and never raised any issue with the government. The King and his nominees enjoyed absolute power which they generally used to protect their own personal interests. These societies did not differentiate between formal and informal set-ups, governmental and non-governmental activities.
Ascriptive values played a predominant role in the society, and the behaviour of the people was highly traditional. Age-old customs, beliefs, faith and traditional ways of living enabled the people to live together and control their behaviour.
2. Diffracted Model
These societies are based on universalistic principles with no differentiation in treatment. There is a high degree of specialization and each structure carries out a specialized function. Ascriptive values cease to exist, giving way to the attainment values in the society. The society would be highly dynamic and diffracted. There exists in these societies open class structures represented by various associations which play a prominent role in achieving rational results in the society. All organisations and structures in the society are created and based on scientific rationale.
These societies are based on universalistic principles with no differentiation in treatment. There is a high degree of specialization and each structure carries out a specialized function. Ascriptive values cease to exist, giving way to the attainment values in the society. The society would be highly dynamic and diffracted. There exists in these societies open class structures represented by various associations which play a prominent role in achieving rational results in the society. All organisations and structures in the society are created and based on scientific rationale.
The economic system is based on market mechanism. The influence of market has both the direct and indirect effects on the other facets of the society. Riggs called it 'marketized society'. Various associations discharge various functions. Communications and technology are highly developed and governments give top priority to the maintenance of cordial public relations. Governments would be responsive to the need of the people and protect human rights. People would bring pressure on the government to get their things done and control its behaviour to a great extent. Government officers have no coercive and absolute powers. The public pays attention and gives respect to the laws of the nation on their own. This facilitates the implementation of the laws and the discharge of its responsibilities by the government without any difficulty. There would be a general consensus among the people on all basic aspects of social life.
3. Prismatic Model
Riggs focused on the prismatic model - the focal point of his models. According to Riggs, the prismatic society is one which has achieved a certain level of differentiation; the specialization of roles necessary for dealing with modern technology, but has failed to integrate these roles. The prismatic society shares the value-patterns of both fused and diffracted societies.
Riggs focused on the prismatic model - the focal point of his models. According to Riggs, the prismatic society is one which has achieved a certain level of differentiation; the specialization of roles necessary for dealing with modern technology, but has failed to integrate these roles. The prismatic society shares the value-patterns of both fused and diffracted societies.
PRISMATIC SOCIETY : CHARACTERISTICS
The intermediate society between two extremes i.e., fused and diffracted, is called prismatic society. In his analysis Riggs used fused and diffracted models as tools to explain the prismatic phenomena of developing countries. According to Riggs, the prismatic society has three important characteristic features, viz., a) heterogeneity b) formalism and c) overlapping.
The intermediate society between two extremes i.e., fused and diffracted, is called prismatic society. In his analysis Riggs used fused and diffracted models as tools to explain the prismatic phenomena of developing countries. According to Riggs, the prismatic society has three important characteristic features, viz., a) heterogeneity b) formalism and c) overlapping.
a) Heterogeneity: The existence of a high degree of heterogeneity is the main characteristic feature of a prismatic society. Heterogeneity refers to the simultaneous presence, side by side, of quite different kinds of systems, practices and view-points. Owing to the parallel co-existence of diametrically opposite view-points and practices, the social change in a prismatic society would be inconsistent, incomplete and unresponsive. The heterogeneity also influences the administrative system.
There are in a prismatic society urban areas with a 'sophisticated', intellectual class, western style offices and modern gadgets of administration. There also exist a well developed communications system, sky-scrapers, airconditioners, the existence of specialised agencies to discharge various social, political, economic and technical services.
There are in a prismatic society urban areas with a 'sophisticated', intellectual class, western style offices and modern gadgets of administration. There also exist a well developed communications system, sky-scrapers, airconditioners, the existence of specialised agencies to discharge various social, political, economic and technical services.
On the other hand, in the rural areas, people lead a highly traditional life with no facilities for modern living like telephones, refrigerators, etc. The village 'elders' combine various political, administrative, social, economic and religious roles.
Heterogeneity exists in a prismatic society in all walks of life presenting a paradoxical picture. In the field of education, society pays a great emphasis on the western type of education while upholding traditional Gurukulas. Hospitals with all modern facilities giving allopathic treatment co-exist with Ayurvedic, Unani, Homeopathic and Naturopathic centres. Such a co-existence of contrasting systems pulling the society in different directions makes it difficult to make generalizations.
In the prismatic societies political and administrative offices enjoy enormous influence, poker and prestige and help in making money. Although equal opportunities exist for all, only some people are privileged enough and hope to get the jobs in higher echelons. Those who fail to get jobs would waste no time in forming 'pressure groups' against the government and start agitations on some pretext or other. Though elected through democratic processes, the government would not be in a position to control the people. The people in power tend to make all efforts to protect their interests and stick to power. Thus, there could always be misunderstanding and misrepresentation of facts giving rise to tensions and instability in the society.
The problem becomes much complicated in a poly-communal society where different communities try to pull the society in different directions in furtherance of their own sectional interests. This is evident in almost all the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Lack of integration thus forms the basic feature of a prismatic society.
All these disparities, differentiations in almost all aspects of life not only influence the working of the administrative system and condition its behiviour but also create a number of problems for the administration. The ruling class would normally try to protect the interests of 'haves' and ignore the interests of 'have nots', which, according to Riggs, would create conditions conducive to the outbreak of a revolution in society.
The problem becomes much complicated in a poly-communal society where different communities try to pull the society in different directions in furtherance of their own sectional interests. This is evident in almost all the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America. Lack of integration thus forms the basic feature of a prismatic society.
All these disparities, differentiations in almost all aspects of life not only influence the working of the administrative system and condition its behiviour but also create a number of problems for the administration. The ruling class would normally try to protect the interests of 'haves' and ignore the interests of 'have nots', which, according to Riggs, would create conditions conducive to the outbreak of a revolution in society.
b). Formalism
Formalism refers to the extent to which a discrepancy exists between the prescriptive and the descriptive, between formal and effective power, between the impression given by the Constitution, laws and regulations, organization charts and statistics and the actual practices and facts of government and society. In other words, it means the degree of difference between the formally prescribed and effectively practiced norms and realities and the existence of gap between the 'stated objectives' and 'real performance'. The greater the difference between the formal and the actual, the more will the formalism be in a system. The fused and diffracted societies have relatively a high degree of realism in comparison with a prismatic society where there is a high degree of formalism.
Though the laws, rules and regulations prescribe the style of functioning for the government, officials, there are wide deviations in their actual behaviour. The officers sometimes stick to the rules and sometimes overlook and even violate them. This formalistic behaviour is caused by the lack of pressure on the government towards the programme objectives, the weakness of the social power to influence the bureaucratic performance and a great degree of permissiveness for arbitrary administration. Thus, the behavior of the government officials and bureaucrats would be highly unpredictable, inconsistent and depends on the situational variables. The reason for such a type of behaviour may be ascribed either to the natural inclination of the employees towards collecting easy money or to the existence of chances for maladministration. Thus, generally formalism in administration paves the way for corruption in society.
Formalism refers to the extent to which a discrepancy exists between the prescriptive and the descriptive, between formal and effective power, between the impression given by the Constitution, laws and regulations, organization charts and statistics and the actual practices and facts of government and society. In other words, it means the degree of difference between the formally prescribed and effectively practiced norms and realities and the existence of gap between the 'stated objectives' and 'real performance'. The greater the difference between the formal and the actual, the more will the formalism be in a system. The fused and diffracted societies have relatively a high degree of realism in comparison with a prismatic society where there is a high degree of formalism.
Though the laws, rules and regulations prescribe the style of functioning for the government, officials, there are wide deviations in their actual behaviour. The officers sometimes stick to the rules and sometimes overlook and even violate them. This formalistic behaviour is caused by the lack of pressure on the government towards the programme objectives, the weakness of the social power to influence the bureaucratic performance and a great degree of permissiveness for arbitrary administration. Thus, the behavior of the government officials and bureaucrats would be highly unpredictable, inconsistent and depends on the situational variables. The reason for such a type of behaviour may be ascribed either to the natural inclination of the employees towards collecting easy money or to the existence of chances for maladministration. Thus, generally formalism in administration paves the way for corruption in society.
Formalism exists in all aspects of social life. Generally, the laws relating to social and cultural aspects of life are not respected and adhered to. They exist only in the record rooms of the government, and the government also is not serious about their implementation. To quote a few instances in India, prohibition laws are respected more in breach than in observance thereof. The town planning regulations are more violated than observed. Such hypocrisy in social life is, generally, found to be the rule rather than an exception in almost all the developing countries.
While explaining the dimensions of formalism Riggs also considered Constitutional formalism. Constitutional formalism refers to the gap between the Constitutional provisions and their actual implementation. This can be found in India. For instance, according to the Constitutional practice, the Chief Ministers are to be elected by the members of the majority party in the State Assembly. The Council of Ministers are to be chosen by the Chief Minister. But in practice, in most cases the central party leadership plays a decisive role in their selection. The Constitution legally vests the governance in the hands of the elected representatives of the people but in practice the real governmental power and influence may be wielded by some individuals or groups of people outside the Parliament.
The Constitution entrusts law making responsibility to legislators but in reality they spend only a little time on law making. They may be engaged more in power politics than in the discharging of their legislative responsibility. This helps the bureaucracy, in the prismatic societies, to play a major role in law-making. The bureaucrats may even form groups or align themselves with various political leaders owing to the presence of factions within the ruling party or the Council of Ministers. Thus formalism exists in all aspects of social life in a prismatic society.
While explaining the dimensions of formalism Riggs also considered Constitutional formalism. Constitutional formalism refers to the gap between the Constitutional provisions and their actual implementation. This can be found in India. For instance, according to the Constitutional practice, the Chief Ministers are to be elected by the members of the majority party in the State Assembly. The Council of Ministers are to be chosen by the Chief Minister. But in practice, in most cases the central party leadership plays a decisive role in their selection. The Constitution legally vests the governance in the hands of the elected representatives of the people but in practice the real governmental power and influence may be wielded by some individuals or groups of people outside the Parliament.
The Constitution entrusts law making responsibility to legislators but in reality they spend only a little time on law making. They may be engaged more in power politics than in the discharging of their legislative responsibility. This helps the bureaucracy, in the prismatic societies, to play a major role in law-making. The bureaucrats may even form groups or align themselves with various political leaders owing to the presence of factions within the ruling party or the Council of Ministers. Thus formalism exists in all aspects of social life in a prismatic society.
c). Overlapping
'Overlapping' refers to the extent to which formally differentiated structures of a diffracted society co-exist with undifferentiated structures of a fused type. In administrative systems administrative behaviour tends to be influenced by non-administrative criteria i.e., by political, social, religious or other considerations. In a fused society, traditional structures perform almost all kinds of functions and the problem of overlapping does not arise because in such a society whatever is formal is also effective. However, in a prismatic society, although 'new or modem' social structures are created, in essence the old or undifferentiated structures continue to dominate the social system. Though formal recognition is given to new norms and values which are generally associated with a diffracted structure, in reality they are paid only lip-sympathy and are overlooked widely in favour of traditional values associated with un-diffracted societies. Thus, in a prismatic society, the Parliament, the Government offices, market, schools, etc., perform various administrative, political, and economic functions. In reality, their behaviour is influenced by certain traditional organisations like family, religion, caste, etc.
'Overlapping' refers to the extent to which formally differentiated structures of a diffracted society co-exist with undifferentiated structures of a fused type. In administrative systems administrative behaviour tends to be influenced by non-administrative criteria i.e., by political, social, religious or other considerations. In a fused society, traditional structures perform almost all kinds of functions and the problem of overlapping does not arise because in such a society whatever is formal is also effective. However, in a prismatic society, although 'new or modem' social structures are created, in essence the old or undifferentiated structures continue to dominate the social system. Though formal recognition is given to new norms and values which are generally associated with a diffracted structure, in reality they are paid only lip-sympathy and are overlooked widely in favour of traditional values associated with un-diffracted societies. Thus, in a prismatic society, the Parliament, the Government offices, market, schools, etc., perform various administrative, political, and economic functions. In reality, their behaviour is influenced by certain traditional organisations like family, religion, caste, etc.
SALA MODEL:
Prismatic society is characterized by various economic, social, political and administrative sub-systems. Riggs called the administrative sub-system 'Sala Model'.
In a diffracted society its counterpart is called 'Bureau' or 'Office' and in a fused society 'Chamber'. Each of them has distinctive features of its own.
The Spanish word, 'Sala', has a variety of meanings like a government office, religious conference, a room, a pavilion, etc. The word, 'Sala', is also generally used in East Asian countries more or less with the same meaning. Sala has certain features of both the diffracted 'bureau' and the fused 'chamber'. However, the 'bureau' features of Sala do not well represent its basic character.
Prismatic society is characterized by various economic, social, political and administrative sub-systems. Riggs called the administrative sub-system 'Sala Model'.
In a diffracted society its counterpart is called 'Bureau' or 'Office' and in a fused society 'Chamber'. Each of them has distinctive features of its own.
The Spanish word, 'Sala', has a variety of meanings like a government office, religious conference, a room, a pavilion, etc. The word, 'Sala', is also generally used in East Asian countries more or less with the same meaning. Sala has certain features of both the diffracted 'bureau' and the fused 'chamber'. However, the 'bureau' features of Sala do not well represent its basic character.
The heterogeneous value system and the traditional and modern methods of the prismatic society are reflected in its administrative rationality and efficiency found in the Bureau is absent in Sala.
In a prismatic society, family welfare, nepotism and favoritism play a significant role in the making of appointments to various administrative positions and in the performing of certain administrative functions. In a diffracted society, the considerations of kinship are kept out of the administrative behaviour and the exercise of governmental power. In a fused society the politico-administrative system has a patrimonial character, and therefore, attaches importance to kinship or family. In a prismatic society, on the other hand, apart from the super-imposition of new formal structures on family and kinship, it disregards the universalization of laws. Though patrimonialism is officially prescribed, in reality it is widely practiced and it is reflected in all administrative practices.
The 'Sala' officer gives priority to personal increase in power and wealth rather than social welfare. His behaviour and performance are influenced by parochialism, and as a result, the rules and regulations are not made universally applicable. A few people get more benefits from the governmental programmes than the others, resulting in the ignoring of the interests of a large number of people.
Further, the poly-communalism also creates certain administrative problems. Theoretically speaking, the government officers have to implement the laws impartially. But a government official may be found to be more loyal to the members of his own community than to the government. As a result, a dominant minority community may gain a high proportion of representation in the matter of recruitment etc., thereby creating dissatisfaction among the larger numbers of people. To present such a situation and to protect the interests of other minorities, the 'quota' or 'reservation' system may be adopted to provide some sort of proportional representation to all communities in the administration. However, such an arrangement might lead to compartmentalization and mutual hostility among various communities, which might further aggravate the tensions prevailing among the different communities working in various governmental agencies. This situation, however, is not peculiar to developing countries alone. The 'Whiteman-Negro' relations in Southern America, for instance, illustrates it.
Though family, community and caste play decisive roles in a prismatic society, there is a simultaneous growth of new groups in the society. Riggs called them 'clects'.
A 'Clect' is a typical prismatic group, which makes use of modern, associational methods or organisation, but retains diffuse and particularistic goals of a transitional type. Thus the clect combines the features of 'sect' of the fused society and 'club' of the diffracted society. 'Clects' represent exclusively the people of a particular community or group, and government officials belonging to that category serve only the members of their respective 'clects' effectively by ignoring others. Sometimes the sala or one of its agencies develop close relations with particular clects or starts functioning like a clect.
As a result, the clect maintains close links with a particular group and functions primarily in interest, and pays lip-service to achievement and universalistic norms. In a prismatic society the traditional behaviour pattern coexists with 'new' sets of norms. As a result of overlapping of the 'formal' and the 'effective' standard of conduct, the prismatic society's social interactions are characterized by a lack of consensus on the norms of behaviour.
As a result, the clect maintains close links with a particular group and functions primarily in interest, and pays lip-service to achievement and universalistic norms. In a prismatic society the traditional behaviour pattern coexists with 'new' sets of norms. As a result of overlapping of the 'formal' and the 'effective' standard of conduct, the prismatic society's social interactions are characterized by a lack of consensus on the norms of behaviour.
Sala officials may enter service by virtue of higher educational qualifications or through success in competitive examinations but in respect of their promotion and career development, they depend largely on ascriptive ties, and also on the basis of seniority or on the influence of senior officers. These officers may claim to be guided by modern norms in their behaviour, while actually being indifferent or rejecting all inconvenent norms in their day-to-day functioning. The public also follows the example of Sala officials in respect of observance of rules and regulations. But when their personal issues are involved, they would either try to break the rules or plead for exemption in their favour.
While referring to overlapping in the power structure of a prismatic society, Riggs observes that it consists of a 'highly centralized and concentrated authority structure overlapping control system that is highly localised and dispersed. There exists a separation of 'authority' (officially sanctioned or legitimate power) from 'control' (real, but unofficially permitted or illegitimate power). In practice, the de jure 'authority' succumbs to the de facto 'controls'. The authority of the Sala overlaps the society's control structures which are based on poly-communalism, clects and poly-normativism. A number of structures at times behave in a peculiar fashion and many a time even act against the very purpose for which they have been created. Sometimes, structures lacking primary orientation towards administration carry out administrative functions along with other concrete structures responsible for it. Such overlapping influences the relationship between politicians and administration.
While referring to overlapping in the power structure of a prismatic society, Riggs observes that it consists of a 'highly centralized and concentrated authority structure overlapping control system that is highly localised and dispersed. There exists a separation of 'authority' (officially sanctioned or legitimate power) from 'control' (real, but unofficially permitted or illegitimate power). In practice, the de jure 'authority' succumbs to the de facto 'controls'. The authority of the Sala overlaps the society's control structures which are based on poly-communalism, clects and poly-normativism. A number of structures at times behave in a peculiar fashion and many a time even act against the very purpose for which they have been created. Sometimes, structures lacking primary orientation towards administration carry out administrative functions along with other concrete structures responsible for it. Such overlapping influences the relationship between politicians and administration.
Riggs has termed the prismatic society an 'unbalanced polity' in which bureaucrats dominate the politico-administrative system, despite the political leaders' Constitutional powers. As a result, the Sala officials play a more dominant role in decision-making processes in a prismatic society than the officials in a diffracted society. Owing to such a concentration of powers in the hands of bureaucrats, there would be lack of response to the people's needs and wishes. In such a situation the strengthening of the Public Administration in developing societies is likely to impede political development. He has further pointed out that such a weak political system marked by leadership failure to control the bureaucracy would lead the rendering of the legislature, political parties, voluntary associations and public opinion ineffective.
The strength and weakness of any political leader in power varies with his ability to reward and punish the administrators. A weak political leader may fail to recognise the services of an efficient official and reward him suitably for achieving the organisational goals and at the same time an inefficient official may escape punishment for his failures. As a result, a talented Sala official tends to spend most of his time for increasing his power and for the promotion of personal interests and in the process inefficient officials may go scot free. since the performance of the government depends on the level of output of the Sala official, 'Riggs says', there is a close link between bureaucratic behaviour and administrative output; the more powerful a bureaucrat is the less effective he is as an administrator. As a result, the Sala is characterised by nepotism in recruitment, institutionalised corruption and inefficiency in the administration on account of its being governed by the motives of gaining-power for protecting its own interest.
THE BAZAAR CANTEEN MODEL:
Riggs called the economic sub-system of prismatic economy-'Bazaar Canteen Model'. In a diffracted society, the economic system operates depending on market factors of supply and demand and economic considerations alone govern the market. In a fused society, religious, social or familiar factors guide the economy, a kind of barter exchange system exists in such economies and question of price very rarely arises. The prismatic society has the characteristics of both market economy and traditional economy. Under such circumstances, it is not possible to determine common price for a commodity or service.
In the bazaar canteen model, a small section of people enjoy all benefits with control over economic institutions and exploit a large number of people. Bargaining, rebates and bribes etc are common features of this model. There is discrimination and favouritism at all levels, price of the services is determined by the relaltionship between public official and people, price varies from place to place, time to time and person to person. The price of any commodity or service depends on family contacts, kinship, individual relationship, bargaining power and politics. Such a state of affairs encourages black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, inflation etc. 'Market factors' in prismatic society are developed without, proportionate increase in the capital, the businessmen try to extend their influence to political and administrative spheres to achieve their personal ends. Exploitation, poverty and social injustice, therefore, become the major features of the bazaar canteen model.
Riggs called the economic sub-system of prismatic economy-'Bazaar Canteen Model'. In a diffracted society, the economic system operates depending on market factors of supply and demand and economic considerations alone govern the market. In a fused society, religious, social or familiar factors guide the economy, a kind of barter exchange system exists in such economies and question of price very rarely arises. The prismatic society has the characteristics of both market economy and traditional economy. Under such circumstances, it is not possible to determine common price for a commodity or service.
In the bazaar canteen model, a small section of people enjoy all benefits with control over economic institutions and exploit a large number of people. Bargaining, rebates and bribes etc are common features of this model. There is discrimination and favouritism at all levels, price of the services is determined by the relaltionship between public official and people, price varies from place to place, time to time and person to person. The price of any commodity or service depends on family contacts, kinship, individual relationship, bargaining power and politics. Such a state of affairs encourages black marketing, hoarding, adulteration, inflation etc. 'Market factors' in prismatic society are developed without, proportionate increase in the capital, the businessmen try to extend their influence to political and administrative spheres to achieve their personal ends. Exploitation, poverty and social injustice, therefore, become the major features of the bazaar canteen model.
THEORY OF PRISMATIC SOCIETY: REFORMULATED
Riggs, realizing the limitations of 'one dimensional approach' of his models, reformulated them in his later work 'Prismatic Society Revisited(1975)'. As mentioned earlier, his models of fused, prismatic and diffracted were built on the variations in the levels of differentiation. In his new formulations, Riggs has introduced the second dimension of levels of integration among the societies that are characterised as differentiated and prismatic.
Riggs, realizing the limitations of 'one dimensional approach' of his models, reformulated them in his later work 'Prismatic Society Revisited(1975)'. As mentioned earlier, his models of fused, prismatic and diffracted were built on the variations in the levels of differentiation. In his new formulations, Riggs has introduced the second dimension of levels of integration among the societies that are characterised as differentiated and prismatic.
Riggs by introducing two dimensional approach of differentiation and integration arranged the societies on the scale of integration and mal-integration. The diffracted and prismatic models are further subdivided on the basis of degrees of integration. Accordingly, diffracted societies are reconceptualised as co-diffracted, artho-diffracted and neo-diffracted. Prismatic societies also are, reconceptualised as co-prismatic, artho-prismatic and neo-prismiitic.
The new formulation of two dimensional approach means that a diffracted model refers to a society that is differentiated and integrated and prismatic model refers to a society that is differentiated but mal-integrated. The prefixes attached to both models suggest different relationships between differentiation and integration. Riggs used the reformulated models to explain the social tensions in developed societies like America. In his opinion the social tensions in developed nations like urban crisis, rapid violence, student uprising are a result of maladjustments in the differentiation and integration. More stable and peaceful conditions in underdeveloped countries may be an indication of less gap in the differentiation and integration in prismatic societies. These reformulations of Riggs are more useful to understand the specificities of developing and developed societies.
The new formulation of two dimensional approach means that a diffracted model refers to a society that is differentiated and integrated and prismatic model refers to a society that is differentiated but mal-integrated. The prefixes attached to both models suggest different relationships between differentiation and integration. Riggs used the reformulated models to explain the social tensions in developed societies like America. In his opinion the social tensions in developed nations like urban crisis, rapid violence, student uprising are a result of maladjustments in the differentiation and integration. More stable and peaceful conditions in underdeveloped countries may be an indication of less gap in the differentiation and integration in prismatic societies. These reformulations of Riggs are more useful to understand the specificities of developing and developed societies.
CRITICISM -
2. Absence of quantitative indicators;
3. Negative orientation of the concepts; and
4. Ethnocentricism.
We shall 'discuss these criticisms in some detail. Difficulties in using the language: Riggs literally coined new words to explain his concepts. ln addition, he also gave different meanings to a number of words already in use. There is no harm in coining new words when the existing vocabulary fails to convey the meaning and clarify the concepts. There is also nothing wrong if one interprets a term in his own way for the effective expression of his views. But a free use of new words, and of words already having different meanings may create confusion instead of clarifying the concepts. Riggs in his enthusiasm to give a scientific character to his models, borrowed most of his terminology from Physical Sciences. But the use of certain new words borrowed from Physical Sciences to analyse administration cannot make it a science.
B. Lack of change orientation: Hahn-Been Lee doubts the utility of the prismatic and Sala models in view of the development administration's focus on social change. Lee feels that Riggs models are not helpful to the analysis of the process of social change and development. He considers Riggs models is equilibrium models. Equilibrium models would help in preserving the system but not in introducing any change in the system. Lee thus concludes that the models of Riggs are not useful when the objective of the administration is to change the system rather than maintain it.
C. Absence of quantitative indicators: In applying Riggs's models to particular societies, the problem of measurement arises. In the absence of a measuring scale, the identification of prismatic or diffracted societies becomes very difficult. The reader, following Riggs's analysis, may tend to associate prismatic conditions with every situation he knows. Similarly, when the fused and diffracted societies are imaginary, Daya Krishna says, all the societies are to be classified as prismatic at various levels-low, middle or high. But when scales to measure the levels of 'prismatic' are lacking, such a classification will have no relevance. The fact is that Riggs's models are mostly based on certain assumptions. But in the absence of any empirical evidence the validity of such assumptions is questionable.
D. Negative Orientation of Concepts: Riggs did not give as much importance to the positive character of a prismatic society as to its negative character. He projected formalism as a negative aspect and highlighted its bad effects only. But it is also true that sometimes the people might stand to gain if the rules and regulations are not strictly followed. For instance, administration may move fast if certain rules are not strictly observed. In countries like India, if there is proper leadership, formalism becomes dysfunctional in most or in all circumstances and represents a 'non-ecological' view point. To counter-balance the Riggsian concept of negative formalism, Valson has presented-a new concept of positive formalism. It is undeniable that formalism is bound to be present in any situation where an attempt is made to achieve a higher level of performance. This can be interpreted as the desire of the people to reach a new higher level of performance. All institutions and individuals can improve their performance when the goals set and when the norms fixed are of a higher order. Instead of considering formalism as a gap between good intentions and the struggle to achieve it, it is described as a negative characteristic.
You would find many criticisms on the ecological approach of Riggs. Mainly the criticisms are on the grounds of:
A. Difficulties in using the language:
1. Lack of change orientation; 2. Absence of quantitative indicators;
3. Negative orientation of the concepts; and
4. Ethnocentricism.
We shall 'discuss these criticisms in some detail. Difficulties in using the language: Riggs literally coined new words to explain his concepts. ln addition, he also gave different meanings to a number of words already in use. There is no harm in coining new words when the existing vocabulary fails to convey the meaning and clarify the concepts. There is also nothing wrong if one interprets a term in his own way for the effective expression of his views. But a free use of new words, and of words already having different meanings may create confusion instead of clarifying the concepts. Riggs in his enthusiasm to give a scientific character to his models, borrowed most of his terminology from Physical Sciences. But the use of certain new words borrowed from Physical Sciences to analyse administration cannot make it a science.
B. Lack of change orientation: Hahn-Been Lee doubts the utility of the prismatic and Sala models in view of the development administration's focus on social change. Lee feels that Riggs models are not helpful to the analysis of the process of social change and development. He considers Riggs models is equilibrium models. Equilibrium models would help in preserving the system but not in introducing any change in the system. Lee thus concludes that the models of Riggs are not useful when the objective of the administration is to change the system rather than maintain it.
C. Absence of quantitative indicators: In applying Riggs's models to particular societies, the problem of measurement arises. In the absence of a measuring scale, the identification of prismatic or diffracted societies becomes very difficult. The reader, following Riggs's analysis, may tend to associate prismatic conditions with every situation he knows. Similarly, when the fused and diffracted societies are imaginary, Daya Krishna says, all the societies are to be classified as prismatic at various levels-low, middle or high. But when scales to measure the levels of 'prismatic' are lacking, such a classification will have no relevance. The fact is that Riggs's models are mostly based on certain assumptions. But in the absence of any empirical evidence the validity of such assumptions is questionable.
D. Negative Orientation of Concepts: Riggs did not give as much importance to the positive character of a prismatic society as to its negative character. He projected formalism as a negative aspect and highlighted its bad effects only. But it is also true that sometimes the people might stand to gain if the rules and regulations are not strictly followed. For instance, administration may move fast if certain rules are not strictly observed. In countries like India, if there is proper leadership, formalism becomes dysfunctional in most or in all circumstances and represents a 'non-ecological' view point. To counter-balance the Riggsian concept of negative formalism, Valson has presented-a new concept of positive formalism. It is undeniable that formalism is bound to be present in any situation where an attempt is made to achieve a higher level of performance. This can be interpreted as the desire of the people to reach a new higher level of performance. All institutions and individuals can improve their performance when the goals set and when the norms fixed are of a higher order. Instead of considering formalism as a gap between good intentions and the struggle to achieve it, it is described as a negative characteristic.
E. Ethnocentrisms: The categorisation of the societies into fused, prismatic and diffracted ones a based on the values inherent in a capitalist system. The characteristics of the diffracted model are entirely those of a capitalist system. Riggs's analysis clearly establishes the superiority of the diffracted model over the other models. To that extent, this approach suffers from ethnocentrisms.
SUMMARY:
Classical organizational theories mainly emphasize organisational structures and principles and behavioural theories concentrate on human behaviour in the organisation. But ecological theories emphasise the interaction of administration with its environment. Both in content, and in analysis, Riggs's ecological approach extends the horizons; and assumes an integrated approach to the administrative system. His approach and models help us in examining the administrative process in developing countries. Although in practice his administrative models are difficult to find, they help us in appreciating the realities. The Sala model provides an opportunity to analyse and understand the administrative system in developing countries. It also facilitates to further such studies that are based on empirical and ecological approaches.
SUMMARY:
Classical organizational theories mainly emphasize organisational structures and principles and behavioural theories concentrate on human behaviour in the organisation. But ecological theories emphasise the interaction of administration with its environment. Both in content, and in analysis, Riggs's ecological approach extends the horizons; and assumes an integrated approach to the administrative system. His approach and models help us in examining the administrative process in developing countries. Although in practice his administrative models are difficult to find, they help us in appreciating the realities. The Sala model provides an opportunity to analyse and understand the administrative system in developing countries. It also facilitates to further such studies that are based on empirical and ecological approaches.
KEY WORDS
Ascriptive values: Values derived by "birth".
Attainment values: Values derived by one's own efforts.
Barter exchange: It is a characteristic feature of traditional economy. In such an economy there is an exchange of goods and services without the use of money.
Bureau: Bureau or office refers to administrative sub system in a diffracted society.
Chamber: Refers to administrative sub-system in a fused society.
Differentiation: Existence of a situation in which every function has a corresponding specialised structure for its performance.
Formal: The official norm, the theory, what ought to be done, as expressed in constitutions, laws, rules and regulations. Integration: A process to tie together, to coordinate the various kinds of specialised roles in a society.
Market Exchange: It is the buying and selling of goods and services at money price according to law of supply and demand. Nepotism: Favouritism shown to relatives in conferring offices.
Poly-communalism: It is the name given by Riggs to plural society where we find the simultaneous existence of several ethnic, religious and racial groups.
Poly-normativism: Displacement of traditional values by new ones, it leads to increase in opposed values in a society. Patrimonialism: Patrimonial political system comprise of specialised political elites such as kings, subchiefs and specialised officialdom, all offices are hated in ruler's household.
Refracted: Refracted society is one where there is high level of structural differentiation and functional specialisation. Structure: Observable regular activities which make up the political system
Ascriptive values: Values derived by "birth".
Attainment values: Values derived by one's own efforts.
Barter exchange: It is a characteristic feature of traditional economy. In such an economy there is an exchange of goods and services without the use of money.
Bureau: Bureau or office refers to administrative sub system in a diffracted society.
Chamber: Refers to administrative sub-system in a fused society.
Differentiation: Existence of a situation in which every function has a corresponding specialised structure for its performance.
Formal: The official norm, the theory, what ought to be done, as expressed in constitutions, laws, rules and regulations. Integration: A process to tie together, to coordinate the various kinds of specialised roles in a society.
Market Exchange: It is the buying and selling of goods and services at money price according to law of supply and demand. Nepotism: Favouritism shown to relatives in conferring offices.
Poly-communalism: It is the name given by Riggs to plural society where we find the simultaneous existence of several ethnic, religious and racial groups.
Poly-normativism: Displacement of traditional values by new ones, it leads to increase in opposed values in a society. Patrimonialism: Patrimonial political system comprise of specialised political elites such as kings, subchiefs and specialised officialdom, all offices are hated in ruler's household.
Refracted: Refracted society is one where there is high level of structural differentiation and functional specialisation. Structure: Observable regular activities which make up the political system
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