DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION

An Introduction: Idea of Development Administration was evolved with the emergence of developing countries post WWII and it is not confined to the situations in developing nations alone. In mid 1960's Indian Journal of Public Administration publication has the references to this concept, however, the United States of America started its use in the early 1960's(e.g.,Tennessee Valley Authority). 
Later, administrative experiences from various developing countries such as concerns in improvements of administrative capabilities so that they may utilizes the foreign assistance in a more rational manner,  were grouped together as 'Development Administration'. 

What will we learn here?

• the meaning and elements of Development Administration 
• distinguish between Development Administration and administrative development and
• the features of Development Administration and traditional administration

What is Development Administration? (meaning): Some of definitions by various scholars of Development Administration:

• Development Administration is a "goal oriented" and "change-oriented" administration. It is concerned with maximizing innovation for development - Edward Weidner,1962
• Development Administration refers to organised efforts to carry out programmes or projects initiated by those involved in serving developmental objectives - Fred Riggs
• Development Administration has come to mean the engineering of social change. We sees it is a directional process which is intended to make things happen in a certain way over Intervals of time- Martin Landau

With the added implication attached to it, its meaning has expanded over the years and now it is difficult to define precisely the concept of Development Administration. At best, one can attempt to explain what it implies and includes as per the current usage of the term.

ELEMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION(DA)

1. Change-Orientation: A Development Administration would be dynamic and not 'static'.  Change means the movement of a system or a structure from one point to another while the reverse of 'change' would be status-quo or inertia. Change is an inbuilt philosophy of Development Administration.  This change is a strategy for increasing the coping ability of an Administrative system in relation to its external environment as well as a mechanism to activate its internal structures.

2. Goal-Orientation: Development Administration is 'goal-oriented' administration (as defined by Weidner). So, here we, can ask ourselves these simple questions:

• Is an administrative system not necessarily goal-oriented? 
• Do we not define administration as a collective human activity that is designed to achieve certain specific goals? 

And Answer would be - Yes, it is true that all administrative systems are goal-oriented but  its dominant focus on the question goal-achievement in a more systematic manner make Development Administration distinct from general Public Administration. So, Development Administration is that aspect of Public Administration which is dominantly goal-oriented. 

Weidner points out all these goals are progressive in nature.

3. Progressivism: All goals of Development Administration are progressive in nature is its accepted feature. There appears to have a broad consensus on the nature of progressiveness of these goals in most of the 'developing' societies. 

In political systems, progressivism would imply greater participation of the people in governmental affairs.

Participation could imply differently according to a country's political system but increasing participation would mean involvement of greater share of the common man in developmental affairs of the Government. In terms of economics, a progressive approach would be faster growth in economic development and equitable income and wealth distribution(i.e., economic justice). Likewise, a progressive approach in socio-cultural sphere would involve universalization of health care facilities, social justice based on equity, secularism and adequate opportunities to all social groups to promote their respective cultural distinctiveness. 

Thus, Development Administration is an administration designed to achieve progressive political, economic and socio-cultural goals. Observe figure 1:

Figure 1: PROGRESSIVE GOALS

4. Planning: Though it is not prerequisite to Development Administration, it is the most useful tool to the whole process of goal-oriented change. 

Development Administration as administration of "planned change" -  Pai Panandiker

In this case, Weidner opines that planning may or may not be a necessary condition for Development Administration. But planning facilitates maximum possible utilization of human and material resources. And it is very helpful in poor countries, where such resources are scarce. It helps in the maximum utilization of time and other resources in order to achieve certain goals within a given period, thereby making the whole process of development effective. Example - most of the developing countries like India have adopted socioeconomic planning i.e., Five year plans in India(though discontinued). Today, even developed nations like UK and France have 'indicative' planning.

5. Innovativeness: A development administrative system has to create a creative abd innovative organisational environment unlike dogmatic and traditional administration. The Development Administration must stress upon identification and adoption of new structures, method procedures, policies, plans, programmes and projects which would help achieve the developmental objectives with the greatest possible facilitation. 

Experimentation and adaptation are the hallmarks Development Administration. 

In India, for instance, organisations such as District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) and Command Area Development Administration (CADA) and programmes such as Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and Tribal Area Development Programme (TADP) are examples of such innovations. Likewise, use of computers, district planning, national education policy etc. are other instances of an on-going creative approach to the development process. Not only at organisational level only, creativity in administration is feasible at the group and the individual levels as well and its overall contribution to effectiveness of goal-oriented change can be immense. 

6. Flexibility in Organisational Procedures: No bureaucracy or administration can function without an adequate set of rules whereas a totally "rule-oriented" administration may start treating rules as ends rather than as means. A dogmatic approach will lead to straight-jacketed and inflexible system. An optimum flexibility equips an administrator with required autonomy to handle certain unique and significantly distinctive administrative situations while accountability for any decision made shall remain with the administrator. Though there is the risk of misuse of any discretionary powers, yet this little inevitable risk should enable the ideal notions of creativity and innovation becomes a reality.

7. High Degree of Motivation: Motivated personnel at all levels are key to achieve progressive goals of  a development administrative system. A high degree of commitment and enthusiasm to achieve the progressive goals is needed. Their narrow vested interests or comforts should not act against the highest interest of the organisation and the society. 

What factors can motivate the personnel functioning in development administrative organisation? Need-fulfillment maxim may motivate any groups of individuals to reach certain goals and the developmental administrative personnels are no exception. In a development administrative system, the personnel need to possess and demonstrate extra zeal, extra dedication and even perseverance to achieve lofty progressive goals of change. 

Failure to create such a cadre of motivated people, there is a possibility of routinisation of administration resulting in only modest performance. 

How to get a group of highly motivated people? Difficult, yet, a rigorous exercise in building individuals and groups in a planned manner through proper training can be attempted. Behavioral training for attitudinal change can be effectively employed for creating a new class of motivated individuals. 

8. Client-Orientation:(or beneficiary-orientation) A development administrative system aims at providing maximum benefits of its services and products to the very people for whom the organisation is designed. 

So, it is "people-centered" administration which accords primacy to the needs of its beneficiaries and tries to tune its programmes, policies and actions to these needs. 

Extension-motivation is the most important trait in any service-oriented or beneficiary oriented administration. It means motivation to "help" people.

The assumption of extension motivation is that there is a desire in every man to be of use to others. 

Existence of functionaries with a high degree of extension motivation will make that organisation responsive. Development Administration is highly responsive to the needs, wishes and aspirations of its people. Thus, responsiveness is a fundamental prerequisite to Development Administration's successful existence.

9. Participation: The Progressive political goals of Development Administration will involve participation of the people or beneficiaries in the formulation and implementation of development programmes. The role of the beneficiaries is of utmost importance in identifying goals, prescribing objectives formulating plans, designing action strategies, implementing projects and evaluating performance. 

In India, the block level and district planning are gaining increasing importance in Development Administration. 

How participation helps in Development Administration: 

• in making policies and plans more realistic and down-to-earth, 
• mobilizes people's cooperation and support,
• minimizes cost in terms of manpower, time and money. 

However, people's participation in development programmes depends on three factors and absence of these factors may cause low participation:

1. Ability to participate which in turn depends on their level of formal and informal education.
2. Willingness to participate which in turn depends on the socio-psychological framework of society, groups and individuals, and
3. Opportunity provided to the people by the governmental organisations to participate.

Participation has an important association with decentralization. 

A development administrative system effectively utilizes the strategies of delegation and consultation and thus makes the administration "grass-root" oriented. People's willing cooperation is sought and mobilized by the governmental authorities and this cooperation and collaboration becomes a potent instrument for making the process of Development Administration successful. 

10. Effective Integration: Integration brings together host of groups and authorities for the achievement of common developmental goals. The truth is, Development Administration requires a high degree of coordination or integration otherwise, the development results are likely to be adversely affected. Coordination is necessary at various levels, among different organisations and units, among various positions and functionaries and among the resources available for the achievements of goals. Lack of coordination means wastage of resources and mitigation of effectiveness. 

In any developing society, there is a proliferation of structures to undertake specialized tasks. But this increase of the level of specialization of functions and structure isn't accompanied by a required level of coordination. This gap between specialization and coordination is termed as "integration lag". 

Fred Riggs calls that society "Prismatic" where the level of  integration (coordination) is less than that of differentiation (specialization): I < D (I stands for 'integration lag", 'D stands for Development).

11. Coping Ability: A development administrative system is an "open" system - there is a continuing interaction between the system and its environment and this reciprocity of relationship is an important trait of Development Administration. Every Development Administrative system has to function in an environment where there are the political, economic, social and cultural(including technological) substructures:

• the political environment places demand for a change and provides direction of movement, 
• the economic environment outlines the agenda of action of the administrative system and puts constraints of resources on it and 
• the socio-cultural system creates the milieu in which the development administrative system has to operate. 

Figure 2:  ENVIRONMENT OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION 

This doesn't mean that Development Administration is only a dependent variable which lacks influences to its environment. Development Administration has to respond to the demands and varied challenges arising from its environment. Therefore, a development administrative system continuously tries to enhance its coping capacity. This is done through a process of greater sensitivity and responsiveness to the environment and the capacity to strengthen its administrative structures, behavior and processes. This is what is known as "Administrative development".  

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AND ADMINISTRATIVE DEVELOPMENT 

Let's discuss two interwoven notions in the literature on Development Administration: "administration development" - Development Administration and "development of administrative capacity" - Administrative Development. Here, we shall know that doth the phenomena are interdependent: any society experiencing notable development in its political, economic, social and culture systems is likely to affect in a matching manner, its administrative system (- Development Administration) and conversely a well-organised and competent administrative system is likely to direct the process of all-round development of society in a competent manner ( - Administrative Development). 
These twin processes are so much interlinked that it is difficult to assert as to which would be more prominent and which would precede the other. Fred Riggs noted the relationship in 'Development Administration" and 'Administrative Development" as a "chicken and pig" relationship. Undeniably, the administrative development is an essential corollary to Development Administration. 

Administrative Development implies the enhancement of the capacity and capability of an administrative system to achieve the prescribed progressive goals. 

This can be achieved through modernization of administrative structures and processes, induction of a spirit of innovation, cultivating a highly motivating climate, increasing differentiation, effective integration, and positive attitudinal and behavioral changes among the administrators. The strategies of administrative reform are a part of the process of Administrative Development.

DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AND TRADITIONAL ADMINISTRATION 

The term traditional administration is synonymous to 'general' administration and even revenue and law and order administration. The distinctions between the two are :

	Traditional Administration	Development Administration
1	The objectives are simple	The objectives are multiple and variegated
2	Limited scope of operations	Vaster scope of functioning
3	Simpler	More complex in its parts and procedures
4	Smaller in size	Larger in size
5		More innovative and creative
6	Stresses upon stability	Dynamic in its functioning
7	Rule-orientation is valued	Flexibility is considered a virtue
8	Bureaucratic and authority-oriented	Participatory style of administration
9	Does not rely as much on planning	Administration of planned change
10	The performance of general administrative functions	Primarily developmental in character
11	The Administrative systems in developed countries focus on general administration	The administrative systems in developing countries are basically developmental in orientation

Today, modernized techniques and technologies have been adopted in general administration and sophisticated planning has become an integral part of their functioning; innovativeness and creativity in its operations are being valued immensely; people's cooperation in taxation and law and order administration is encouraged; and flexibility has become their procedures. Thus, to attempt an absolute distinction between general administration and Development Administration would be untenable and unrealistic. Further, the colonial administration mostly engaged in performing traditional administrative functions is an over-simplified assertion because even the colonial bureaucracies e.g., in India were engaged in developmental activities like health, educations, railways etc. Even a Planning and Development Department was set up in the Government of India before Independence. On the other hand, In those newly independent countries, there are the crises of stability, nation building, internal security and national  integrity which requires strengthening of law and order. Time, energy and resources have to be distributed between the developmental and the non-developmental activities. 

Thus, the fact is both are interdependent and changes in one lead to changes in the other. Both prosperity and poverty can lead to discontentment and even violence. Even the developed countries face problems of change and challenges from their dynamic environment which demands their administrative systems to be goal-oriented, change-oriented,innovative, responsive, motivational and integrated. That is why the New Public Administration, started twenty years ago, stressed on almost the same premises that characterize Development Administration. Thus, it would be an over-generalization to say that development administration is a dominant feature only of developing countries. And loses validity of distinction further when we look at the developed 'socialist' countries (such as the U.S.S.R.). 

The characteristics of Development Administration are also associated with general administration, but their intensity is greater in the case of the former. William Wood and other scholars even say that to distinguish between development and traditional administrations would involve an undue undermining of the latter and thus belittling the importance of the fundamental bases of a nation's existence, security and financial resources. It is argued, how can a process of development take place without adequate resource base? The argument has validity.

INSTRUMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION: There are four important instruments that can be employed to realize the goals of development(progressive goals):

1. Administrative System: It is an indispensable instrument to implement development policies and programmes. It performs specialized services and undertake vast range of developmental and non-developmental activities.
2. Political Organisation: They help to mobilize people in support of developmental programmes and resolve social conflicts paving the way for development.
3. Voluntary Associations: The gap between the people and the governmental system in traditional society need to be filled to expedite developmental activities. Here, the voluntary organisations play a crucial and significant role. Higher motivation and flexibility in the organisation and approach, apolitical nature, commitment to the cause, make them fit instruments to undertake developmental tasks.
4. Peoples Organisations: Peoples organisations contribute to quicken the process of development and social transformation by increasing people's participation. Participation can be at the level of decision-making, or implementation or in sharing benefits or in evaluation which requires skills as well as devoted work and calls for mass movement. .

Development strategy cannot depend only on one strategy for national building and socio-economic progress. All the instruments or a combination of different instruments are required. In India Administrative set up, District Collectors and Chief Secretaries which are intricately involved in performing developmental as well as traditional functions. To separate their functions would have only academic relevance. 

Conclusion: Development Administration is a type of administration which has its distinctive characteristics but in an inseparable form from general administration.