INTRODUCTION : Bureaucracy is an instrument and a means of Public Administration. But because of its durable, stable nature and expertise, it becomes a repository af authority and power in the state. The political executive cannot do without the help of bureaucracy. The citizens have more contacts with it than with the members of the political executive.
Political democracy entails the attributes of responsiveness, responsibility and representativeness for the bureaucracy. The first two attributes have been realised, but the representativeness is difficult to realise. The factors in the sociological composition and economic structure of the society underline the environment for its realisation. Bureaucracy, as an organised, systematic institution of the state as a part of the democratic, political structure, has come into existence first in the West and later in other polities.
Political democracy entails the attributes of responsiveness, responsibility and representativeness for the bureaucracy. The first two attributes have been realised, but the representativeness is difficult to realise. The factors in the sociological composition and economic structure of the society underline the environment for its realisation. Bureaucracy, as an organised, systematic institution of the state as a part of the democratic, political structure, has come into existence first in the West and later in other polities.
OBJECTIVES
1. Explain the concept of Representative Bureaucracy
2. Explain the grounds advanced in favor of Representative Bureaucracy; and
3. The practical difficulties in the way of the realization of representative bureaucracy.
MEANING OF REPRESENTATIVE BUREAUCRACY
Like government, bureaucracy in modern times is expected to be responsive, responsible, and representative in relation to the people of the country. It has to be responsive to the desires of the people. The functions assigned to it by the government, (that is the executive) have to be performed by it to their satisfaction. Modern bureaucracy has to be responsible to the people through the ministers who are responsible to the people, being duly elected every five years to the parliament or legislature. These two features of modern bureaucracy have been realised in democratic political systems as in India. The feature of bureaucracy being representative of the sociological composition of the population in a Country has been difficult of realisation. In Western countries like Britain and France the various economic strata or divisions of the population, particularly the lower classes, are not represented properly in the composition of the higher level bureaucracy or civil services.
1. Explain the concept of Representative Bureaucracy
2. Explain the grounds advanced in favor of Representative Bureaucracy; and
3. The practical difficulties in the way of the realization of representative bureaucracy.
MEANING OF REPRESENTATIVE BUREAUCRACY
Like government, bureaucracy in modern times is expected to be responsive, responsible, and representative in relation to the people of the country. It has to be responsive to the desires of the people. The functions assigned to it by the government, (that is the executive) have to be performed by it to their satisfaction. Modern bureaucracy has to be responsible to the people through the ministers who are responsible to the people, being duly elected every five years to the parliament or legislature. These two features of modern bureaucracy have been realised in democratic political systems as in India. The feature of bureaucracy being representative of the sociological composition of the population in a Country has been difficult of realisation. In Western countries like Britain and France the various economic strata or divisions of the population, particularly the lower classes, are not represented properly in the composition of the higher level bureaucracy or civil services.
The meaning of representative Bureaucracy is not very clear. It is understood as a civil service representing proportionately every caste, class and religious groups of the population. It is also interpreted to mean that it is a bureaucracy consisting of all social, religious and racial groups of the society. Concept of representative bureaucracy is that broad social groups should have spokesmen and representatives in administrative as well as political positions.
The term representative bureaucracy was coined by "Donald J. Kingsley" in his book 'Representative Bureaucracy' published in 1944. He argued in his book on the need for liberalization of social class selection for the bureaucracy in England. He argued that only representative bureaucracy would respond to changes in political currents whereas a non-representative bureaucracy would sabotage the demand of a party whose policies may be at odds with the class from which bureaucracy is drawn. Kingsley's argument is that representative bureaucracy is necessary because there must be some administrators sympathetic to the policies of the party in power. In a democracy, he felt competence itself is not enough. He also argued that public service must be representative of the state is to liberate rather than to enslave. Thus the concept of representative bureaucracy was evolved to argue for a less elite oriented and less class biased bureaucracy.
The term representative is not new; it was evolved through history. For example, Max Weber suggested a typology of representation viz.,
(1) Appropriated Representation - it is an ancient form mostly based on hereditary rights;
(2) Representation on the basis of socially independent groupings - This would be a socially privileged group asserting the right to bind others;
(3) Instructed Representations; and
(4) Free Representation.
The term representative is not new; it was evolved through history. For example, Max Weber suggested a typology of representation viz.,
(1) Appropriated Representation - it is an ancient form mostly based on hereditary rights;
(2) Representation on the basis of socially independent groupings - This would be a socially privileged group asserting the right to bind others;
(3) Instructed Representations; and
(4) Free Representation.
The first three forms of representation are fairly known in early times and the fourth i.e., the free representation is unique and is on the rase in modern times.
WHY REPRESENTATIVE BUREAUCRACY ?
The plea for representative bureaucracy is advanced on several grounds:
WHY REPRESENTATIVE BUREAUCRACY ?
The plea for representative bureaucracy is advanced on several grounds:
Firstly bureaucracy is an instrument or organ of government. A genuine democracy ought to have a representative legislature or parliament, a representative executive, that is ministry and also a representative bureaucracy i.e., civil service. Without the bureaucracy being representative, the country's political system would not be entirely democratic, because all the laws and rules and polices of the government are finally put into action by the bureaucracy or civil service.
The second ground for bureaucracy to be representative is that the welfare and development functions meant for the poorer or disadvantaged sections of the society would not be fulfilled to the satisfaction of these sections of the society unless the elements belonging to the poorer section handle those functions. This is the same ground on which a modern legislature or a modern executive is constituted to be essentially representative of the entire adult population in the country.
Another ground for representative bureaucracy, advanced in Britain, during the inter-war and post-second World War years and in India after independent, is based on the need for a harmonious or at least congenial relationship between the political elements including ministers and the higher level civil servants. The ministers and legislators in a democracy tend to come from lower economic or social sections in larger numbers progressively at successive elections to parliament or legislature or local governments, Further, their advice to the political executive would be narrow in range. A crisis of understanding arising out of lack of identify of views and outlook might develop between the political executive (and also representatives) and the civil servants. The possibility of disloyalty of the higher civil servants to the political executive may be for away, but occasion of differences of opinion and at times of conflict are a distinct possibility. The political and administrative literature both in Britain and India has recorded several instances of such disharmony between the political executive and the higher civil Servants.
SITUATION IN U.K. AND U.S.A.
Situation in U.K. : The social composition of the administrative class in Britain is elitist though the working class and lower middle class entrants to it have increased in number with the spread of higher education among them. Philosopher Bertrand Russel, therefore, wrote about the public school as the "appropriate educational instrument" of the ruling oligarchy. But the progressive diffusion effect of the Education Act of 1944 is now in evidence in the pupils of the working classes receiving university education in growing numbers. Some of the recent university graduates from working classes are now entering the higher civil service through open competition, besides being promoted from subordinate grades.
Situation in U.K. : The social composition of the administrative class in Britain is elitist though the working class and lower middle class entrants to it have increased in number with the spread of higher education among them. Philosopher Bertrand Russel, therefore, wrote about the public school as the "appropriate educational instrument" of the ruling oligarchy. But the progressive diffusion effect of the Education Act of 1944 is now in evidence in the pupils of the working classes receiving university education in growing numbers. Some of the recent university graduates from working classes are now entering the higher civil service through open competition, besides being promoted from subordinate grades.
It is true that during the post-war years even scholars of working class origin were educated at these prized universities with the help of state scholarships. The scholars from other universities also failed to appear at the competitive examinations either because their courses did not equip them for this as well as Oxford students or they felt less confident at the interview in the competitive examination. An analysis of the applicants for appointment as administrative trainees in the 1971-75 period has shown that a fifth of all applicants but half of the successful applicants possessed Oxbridge degrees. To an extent, the Oxbridge lead in the open competition to the administrative class does imply denial of Bureaucracy representation to the other universities and their students in the most prestigious civil service of Great Britain. In Britain the representativeness of bureaucracy or higher civil service is affected or reduced by two factors :
(i) Predominance in the higher civil service of the honours - graduates of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (of Oxford after the Second World War) among whom there is a large percentage of students from select public schools, to the neglect of honours graduates from other British Universities.
(ii) Over representation of the upper and higher middle classes in the higher civil service in comparison with their proportion in the country's working population resulting in the under representation of the lower social strata of the population.
Situation in U.S.A. : Even in the United States of America with its more egalitarian educational system the bureaucracy is not representative. In U.S.A. jobs of Public Administration, at three levels: Federal, State and Local, have not been as attractive as the jobs in the private-sector. Self-employment in business, industry, shop keeping and independent professions has also been favored as being in keeping with the independent spirit of the Americans. Further, a unified career civil service in U.S.A. is of recent origin, and even now it engages a very small percentage of the total number of middle level jobs in Public Administration. Specialist and technical jobs in Public Administration are in majority, and officials holding these frequently move in and out.
SITUATION IN INDIA
The researches conducted on the sociological profiles of the higher civil services, particularly the Indian Administrative Service, are very few. But by and large, these studies have brought out that the higher civil services-generalist as well as specialist-contain a large repiesentation of upper castes, higher income level families and urban dwellers. The lower castes and classes and rural dwellers are represented in them in smaller numbers. The principal reasons are three.
SITUATION IN INDIA
The researches conducted on the sociological profiles of the higher civil services, particularly the Indian Administrative Service, are very few. But by and large, these studies have brought out that the higher civil services-generalist as well as specialist-contain a large repiesentation of upper castes, higher income level families and urban dwellers. The lower castes and classes and rural dwellers are represented in them in smaller numbers. The principal reasons are three.
Firstly, the spread of higher education among the lower castes and classes is slow, although after independence it has picked up in extent and pace.
Secondly, the proportions of drop-outs from primary to secondary and from secondary to university level have still been high mainly due to economic reasons.
Thirdly, the minimum educational standard for eligibility for the competitive examinations at the higher services is graduation. But the preparation for the competitive examination takes a couple of years more after the passing of the first graduation: B.A., B.Sc., B.Com., etc.
Several concessions have been given to the scheduled castes and tribes by the central and state governments. The normal age of recruitment for various services is relaxed by a few years in favor of these weaker sections. Application and examination fees are exempted for them. Migration Certificate is issued to the SC/ST persons irrespective of whether the state to which they have migrated has or has not recognized their caste as scheduled. Coaching classes have been set up by government and universities at various places in the count to prepare the candidates of these sections for appearing at the competitive examinations conducted by the union and state governments, nationalized banks and other public authorities. Scholarships are liberally granted to the candidates of these communities to enable them to avail the coaching provided at these classes. Arrangements have been made for orientation/appreciation training for their knowledge of the safeguards in regard to recruitment prescribed by various governments. In service training is also imparted to them for the improvement of their efficiency in service. Machinery has been set up for the redressal of their grievances in these respects. The Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes set up by the Government of India in 1978 has established field officers to investigate into and report the status in this regard all over the country. These field offices have been authorised to establish contacts with the various government departments and agencies to ensure the observance of the reservation and other safeguards, concessions and facilities by them in regard to services, social, economic and legal treatment and execution of development schemes and programmes.
LIMITS TO REPRESENTATIVENESS
Though in principle the plea for representative bureaucracy has been accepted, a number of practical difficulties stand in way of its realisation. The Generalist service personnel are selected on the basis of educational qualification, say a bachelor's degree of a university and within an age limit preferable at a young age of twenties. For specialist services, requisite specialist i.e., technical, professional or scientific, qualifications are necessary. In cases of senior posts, experience in respective areas, say engineering, statistics, computer programming, etc., is called for. The members of the lowers classes in society are not in a position to receive university education, mostly because their parents/guardians cannot afford to send their children/wards to the colleges/universities. In some cases the drop-out of pupils belonging to backward sections is due to age-old social and cultural backwardness. In respect of specialist posts it is still more difficult for the socially and economically backward sections to compete because they have not been able to receive specialist degrees, as for example in engineering, medicine, agronomy, etc. If they could not receive specialist degrees, acquiring experience in such specialist positions is not possible for them.
The government service requires skills and training different from those needed by the society. Chester Bernard, for example, has argued that the introduction of technological innovation requires managerial capability. Managerial functions are not routine and cannot be undertaken by anyone. It needs the ability to act under pressure and officials must assume responsibility under conditions of risk. These skills are not developed in the society. The administrators also require greater training in the specialized functions like the police or public enterprises or welfare programmes, etc. It also requires special qualities and attributes like possessing prescribed height which is a pre-requisite for police service. These skills and attributes are important to carry out the assigned tasks which put limits on the representativeness of bureaucracy. The governments may make adjustments and give relaxation in these skills and attributes, but one has to accept that limits exist in a bureaucracy and total representativeness is not possible.
Though in principle the plea for representative bureaucracy has been accepted, a number of practical difficulties stand in way of its realisation. The Generalist service personnel are selected on the basis of educational qualification, say a bachelor's degree of a university and within an age limit preferable at a young age of twenties. For specialist services, requisite specialist i.e., technical, professional or scientific, qualifications are necessary. In cases of senior posts, experience in respective areas, say engineering, statistics, computer programming, etc., is called for. The members of the lowers classes in society are not in a position to receive university education, mostly because their parents/guardians cannot afford to send their children/wards to the colleges/universities. In some cases the drop-out of pupils belonging to backward sections is due to age-old social and cultural backwardness. In respect of specialist posts it is still more difficult for the socially and economically backward sections to compete because they have not been able to receive specialist degrees, as for example in engineering, medicine, agronomy, etc. If they could not receive specialist degrees, acquiring experience in such specialist positions is not possible for them.
The government service requires skills and training different from those needed by the society. Chester Bernard, for example, has argued that the introduction of technological innovation requires managerial capability. Managerial functions are not routine and cannot be undertaken by anyone. It needs the ability to act under pressure and officials must assume responsibility under conditions of risk. These skills are not developed in the society. The administrators also require greater training in the specialized functions like the police or public enterprises or welfare programmes, etc. It also requires special qualities and attributes like possessing prescribed height which is a pre-requisite for police service. These skills and attributes are important to carry out the assigned tasks which put limits on the representativeness of bureaucracy. The governments may make adjustments and give relaxation in these skills and attributes, but one has to accept that limits exist in a bureaucracy and total representativeness is not possible.
In a plural society, the representative bureaucracy will have adverse consequences. Insistence on representation of different social, ethnic or geographical groups is but an invitation to parochial and narrow mindedness. The bureaucracy in such a case would represent divisive forces than becoming a homogeneous and integrated system. Again, merit bureaucracy is the result of limitations in the recruitment based on ascriptive considerations. If bureaucracy is to be representative it is an invitation to ascriptive groups which undermine rationality and logic on which the present system of merit bureaucracy is based. Bureaucracy is based on professionalism, rationality and homogeneity. Introducing representativeness is to introduce heterogeneity into the bureaucratic system. Thus representative bureaucracy, by definition, becomes a contradiction in terms.
Representative bureaucracy is a concept associated with the realisation of the political ideal of representative democracy. In both the popular democracies of the world polity, Britain which is the mother of parliamentary democracy and the United States of America which is the largest democracy in terms of geographical extent, the concept of representative bureaucracy is not fully realised. Even in the Soviet Union, marked for the extension of economic and social equality, the ideal, of representative bureaucracy has not been fully realised. The realisation of economic and social equality among individuals in society in a political system would not wipe out varying intellectual abilities and mental aptitudes of different persons among the aspirants for the administrative positions at various levels of government and administration. In a country like India and tribal communities are secluded from the civilised segments of the political community, resulting in their cultural, social, economic and educational backwadness.
Along with the attribute of representing the material aspirations of the society, the bureaucracy has to be efficient and effective in the performance of its varied functions of towards the different sections and strata of the society. The efficient and effective performance of administrative functions requires selection of bureaucracy on the basis of merit and aptitude. This also brings in another constraint on the full realisation of the concept of representative bureaucracy.
Along with the attribute of representing the material aspirations of the society, the bureaucracy has to be efficient and effective in the performance of its varied functions of towards the different sections and strata of the society. The efficient and effective performance of administrative functions requires selection of bureaucracy on the basis of merit and aptitude. This also brings in another constraint on the full realisation of the concept of representative bureaucracy.
CONCLUSION
Representative bureaucracy makes a modest contribution to the stability of the political institutions by ensuring that the general feeling and interests of all groups are taken into consideration by the bureaucracy while formulating policies and implementing them. But the fact that bureaucratic responsiveness to the public is influence less by the representative character and more by other factors should not be overlooked. What is important is that bureaucracy should be responsive, responsible and efficient in every country, more so in developing countries regardless of whether it is representative or not.
There are two important assumptions behind the concept of representative bureaucracy. Firstly, every group has equal political rights in accordance with their proportion.
Secondly, civil servants carry the attitudes and prejudices of their class into the bureaucratic positions. But both the assumptions are questionable.
Firstly, in no society is political power equally shared by all groups. Similarly the behavioural patterns of individual civil servants are not found merely based on his location in a social group. Behaviour, it is generally agreed, is shaped-by the dominant influences like experience, education, socialization, etc. This is evident from what V. Subramanian says on the subject:
"We are familiar with aristocrats and rich heirs who have passionate sympathy for the working class. On the other hand, the proportion of deviants among the members of the lower classes who work their way up is held by many observers to be high. It has been suggested that the men who climb out of the lower classes, the upward-mobiles, under present conditions anyway, shed their class sympathies either at the beginning of the climb itself or halfway through. The proven existence of deviants from class norms and the probability of their high proportion among recruits from the lower classes shakes the foundations of the basic argument for representative bureaucracy." SUMMERY :
Like Government, bureaucracy in Modem times is expected to be responsive, responsible and representative of the people of the country. Unlike the first two features of bureaucracy, the feature of representativeness in relation to the sociological composition of the population in the country has been difficult of realisation. Without the bureaucracy being representative, the country's political system would not be entirely democratic. Further, the welfare and development functions meant for the poorer or disadvantaged sections of the society would not be fulfilled to the satisfaction of these sections unless the elements belonging to the poorer sections handle these functions. Representative bureaucracy would also bring about congenial relations between the political elements and the bureaucracy.
Like Government, bureaucracy in Modem times is expected to be responsive, responsible and representative of the people of the country. Unlike the first two features of bureaucracy, the feature of representativeness in relation to the sociological composition of the population in the country has been difficult of realisation. Without the bureaucracy being representative, the country's political system would not be entirely democratic. Further, the welfare and development functions meant for the poorer or disadvantaged sections of the society would not be fulfilled to the satisfaction of these sections unless the elements belonging to the poorer sections handle these functions. Representative bureaucracy would also bring about congenial relations between the political elements and the bureaucracy.
The realisation of economic and social equality among individuals in society would not wipe out varying intellectual abilities and mental aptitudes of different individual persons. The requirement of administrative efficiency and effectiveness brings in another constraint on the realisation of representative bureaucracy. If every individual person in a political system is assured of an equal opportunity to seek and get into a post at any level, even the highest, in Public Administration, the concept of representative bureaucracy would be nearer satisfactory realisation.
KEY WORDS
Egalitarian : Upholding the doctrine of the equality of mankind
Elite : The most powerful, rich or gifted members of a group, community etc.
Homogeneous : Consisting of similar parts ,
Oligarchy : Govemment by a small group of people
Plural Society : A society having groups of distinct ethnic origin, Cultural forms, religion etc.
Repository : Place where things are stored or may be found.
Egalitarian : Upholding the doctrine of the equality of mankind
Elite : The most powerful, rich or gifted members of a group, community etc.
Homogeneous : Consisting of similar parts ,
Oligarchy : Govemment by a small group of people
Plural Society : A society having groups of distinct ethnic origin, Cultural forms, religion etc.
Repository : Place where things are stored or may be found.
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