INTRODUCTION: We have studied the classical, human relations, systems and behavioural Approaches to the study of Public Administration. Here, we would study about the social psychological approach which is a tool to understand the relationships between man and the organisation.
- Describe the social psychology approach
- Explain the assumptions behind Theory 'X' and Theory 'Y'
- Describe the need hierarchy theory; and
- Critically evaluate the contributions of Maslow and McGregor to the social psychology approach
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY APPROACH: Since long time, the most intriguing questions are:
1. Why people work in organisations?
2. What are the conditions that enhance the performance of people at work in organisations?
2. What are the conditions that enhance the performance of people at work in organisations?
Answers to these and several interrelated questions can be analysed from a social-psychological point of view. The belief is that an analysis of human beings with reference to their psychological factors provides answers to many questions relating to their behaviour in organisations. This is mainly because, in organisations people work individually as well as in groups to accomplish tasks and purposes. Basically this approach places ernphasis on the 'man side' of the organisation. A belief in man and his contribution to organisations is central to this approach.
Several thinkers and writers have contributed to this approach among them the contributions of Abraham Maslow and Douglas McGregor are phenomenal. We will study McGregor's theory 'X' and Theory 'Y' and Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Chronologically Maslow's studies come first and Mc Gregor's later. Maslow's contributions became popular only during sixties when Herzberg, McGregor and other social psychologists used his analysis in their motivation studies.
MASLOW'S THEORY OF MOTIVATION:
Maslow in his classic paper 'A Theory of Human Motivation' published in 1943 outlined an overall theory of motivation. He analysed the relationship between the human beings and organisations from the stand point of 'human needs'. Human beings become members of organisations to fulfil their needs. These needs arise in several areas. Fulfilment of these needs motivate the human beings to a higher level of performance. Non-fulfilment of needs will have adverse effect on the motivation of individuals to contribute to the organisation to realise the oiganisational objectives.
Maslow in his classic paper 'A Theory of Human Motivation' published in 1943 outlined an overall theory of motivation. He analysed the relationship between the human beings and organisations from the stand point of 'human needs'. Human beings become members of organisations to fulfil their needs. These needs arise in several areas. Fulfilment of these needs motivate the human beings to a higher level of performance. Non-fulfilment of needs will have adverse effect on the motivation of individuals to contribute to the organisation to realise the oiganisational objectives.
NEED HIERARCHY THEORY:
Maslow arranged a person's motivational needs in a hierarchical manner. According to him there are several needs of human beings which explain human behaviour in organisations. These needs have a hierarchy: physiological needs, security needs, social needs, esteem needs and self actualisation needs. Physiological and security needs are lower order needs in the hierarchy. Self-actualisation need is the highest in the hierarchy. In between comes the social and esteem needs. Maslow believed that unless the need at the lower level is satisfied, it will not motivate a person. Let us see what is the meaning of each of these needs.
1. PhysidogicaL needs: Basic things necessary for human survival are hunger, thirst, shelter, etc. The human being, has to satisfy these needs first. After they are fulfilled he no longer strives hard to obtain them. They no longer motivate him.
Maslow arranged a person's motivational needs in a hierarchical manner. According to him there are several needs of human beings which explain human behaviour in organisations. These needs have a hierarchy: physiological needs, security needs, social needs, esteem needs and self actualisation needs. Physiological and security needs are lower order needs in the hierarchy. Self-actualisation need is the highest in the hierarchy. In between comes the social and esteem needs. Maslow believed that unless the need at the lower level is satisfied, it will not motivate a person. Let us see what is the meaning of each of these needs.
1. PhysidogicaL needs: Basic things necessary for human survival are hunger, thirst, shelter, etc. The human being, has to satisfy these needs first. After they are fulfilled he no longer strives hard to obtain them. They no longer motivate him.
2. Security needs: Job security or safety in the work place gives psychological security to human beings. Maslow stresses both physical and emotional safety. Human being is a safety seeking mechanism. Once safety and security are ensured, they no longer motivate the human being.
3. Social needs: This represents the relationships between and among groups of people working in the organisation. This need provides emotional security to people. This gives a sense of belongingness and association. Every human being needs friendship with others. If these social needs are not met, the employee becomes resistant and hostile
4. Esteem needs: This represents higher level needs of human beings. At this level human beings strive for power, achievement and status. Esteem connotates both self esteem and esteem from others.
4. Esteem needs: This represents higher level needs of human beings. At this level human beings strive for power, achievement and status. Esteem connotates both self esteem and esteem from others.
5. Self-actualisation: This higher level need represents culmination of all other needs. The fulfilment of this need gives a high degree of satisfaction to the individual in work and life. This will further improve a person's performance in an organisation. A self-actualised person has fulfilled all his potential. This represents a person's motivation to transform perception of self into reality.
HOW THE NEED HIERARCHY WORKS
The need hierarchy has five levels: (See the diagram).
Each need, according to Maslow, is a goal to a person at a point of time. If a person's basic requirements, viz., physiological needs are not fulfilled, he concentrates all his energies to achieve satisfaction in that area. Once he gets satisfaction in that need area, he moves to the next order need. This process continues in the daily life of all human beings. Non-achievement of a particular goal in a need area motivates a person to achieve it. Once it is achieved, it no longer motivates or drives a person to work further in that area. This is one of the main foundations of Maslow's theory of need hierarchy.
The need hierarchy has five levels: (See the diagram).
[image source : internet]
1. The lowest in the hierarchy are the physiological needs like hunger, thirst, shelter etc. Such needs call for contributions from the organisation in the form of salary and other amenities to the members of the organisation. Once a person's needs in physiological areas are satisfied by the contributions from the organisation, he moves up in the hierarchy and the next higher level needs become important to him. He strives hard to satisfy himself in that need area.
2. Fulfilment of physiological needs drives one to pursue satisfaction of his security needs. Security need dominates and motivates his behaviour. Once security needs are satisfied, social needs come to the surface.
3. Human beings are social beings and they value affiliation and association. Social needs include fulfilment of psychological needs like acceptance in the organisation. Social needs drives people to improve their interpersonal relations.
4. Once the need to affiliate is fulfilled, human mind searches for the autonomy and prestige in organisation and freedom to work with and through people as described under esteem need. The fulfilment of esteem needs gives self-confidence to people and prepares them to take up leadership positions, guiding others and appraising the performance of people.
5.The highest and the final level in the need hierarchy is the self actualisation need. This is described as achieving the meaning and purpose in life through personal and professional growth. This is expressed by achieving higher performance in a role, be it a worker, or a supervisor or a manager in an organisation. This is the spirit of excellence, found in all societies and organisations. We have examples of high performers in all walks of life all over the world. Self actualised people search for meaning and purpose in all their endeavours and contribute their energies for the development of the organisation. According to Maslow, this need arises only when all the needs lower to it, viz., physiological, security, social and esteem, are fulfilled.
CONDITIONS FOR NEED FULFILMENT
All orgianisation's culture, history, policies, procedures, environment and its ability to attract, develop and retain people play an important role in the need fulfilment of its members. We come across excellent organisations which believe in people. We also witness organisations which hardly think about human factor, i.e., about its members. Organisations, which believe in people and their ability to perform, provide for the fulfilment of the needs of their members. Organisations which are not people oriented, make it dificult for the members to fulfil their needs. Such organisations will face negative consequences of non-fulfilment of needs of their members. This would atleast be the case in the long run!
All orgianisation's culture, history, policies, procedures, environment and its ability to attract, develop and retain people play an important role in the need fulfilment of its members. We come across excellent organisations which believe in people. We also witness organisations which hardly think about human factor, i.e., about its members. Organisations, which believe in people and their ability to perform, provide for the fulfilment of the needs of their members. Organisations which are not people oriented, make it dificult for the members to fulfil their needs. Such organisations will face negative consequences of non-fulfilment of needs of their members. This would atleast be the case in the long run!
Conversely, people without a work ethic, self control and performance orientation become negative forces in an organisation. They cannot fulfil their higher order needs like esteem and self-actualisation. Need fulfilment in an organisation requires self control, goal orientation and work ethic from the organisation an well as from its members.
Maslow clarified that the hierarchy is not as rigid as it is implied theoretically. His argument is that the hierarchy is a framework which helps in understanding the human motivation in organisutions. In other words the hierarchy need not necessarily operate in a fixed order and there is scope for deviations.
NEED HIERARCHY: AN EVALUATION
Maslow's theory, in spite of its importance in understanding human behaviour, is subjected to criticism. Several empirical studies concluded that Maslow's model is open to question as an overall theory of work motivation. These studies found absence of correlation between satisfaction of needs at one level and activation of needs at the next higher level.
Modern management theory is influenced by Maslow's writings to a great extent. Some of the later researchers like Heriberg developed on Maslow's theory and contributed to the enrichment of the discipline. Though there are several limitations in Maslow's conceptualisation, his theory is helpful in predicting human behaviour on a low or high probability basis if not in absolute terms.
Maslow's theory, in spite of its importance in understanding human behaviour, is subjected to criticism. Several empirical studies concluded that Maslow's model is open to question as an overall theory of work motivation. These studies found absence of correlation between satisfaction of needs at one level and activation of needs at the next higher level.
Modern management theory is influenced by Maslow's writings to a great extent. Some of the later researchers like Heriberg developed on Maslow's theory and contributed to the enrichment of the discipline. Though there are several limitations in Maslow's conceptualisation, his theory is helpful in predicting human behaviour on a low or high probability basis if not in absolute terms.
McGREGOR'S THEORY 'X' : A TRADITIONAL VIEW OF MANAGEMENT
Douglas McGregor is a behaviouralist and social psychologist of repute. He is a strong believer in the potentialities of human beings in contributing to organisational performance. His work, "The Human Side of Enterprise" (1960) opened new vistas in organisation and management theory by providing answers to some of the intriguing questions. Later he published another book "The Professional Manager" (1964).
Douglas McGregor is a behaviouralist and social psychologist of repute. He is a strong believer in the potentialities of human beings in contributing to organisational performance. His work, "The Human Side of Enterprise" (1960) opened new vistas in organisation and management theory by providing answers to some of the intriguing questions. Later he published another book "The Professional Manager" (1964).
His focus is on utilising human potential in organisations and getting the best out of people by creating a conducive and harmonious environment.
He felt that the theoretical assumptions about controlling men determine the character of the enterprise. According to McGregor, the failure to bring the best out of human beings in organisitions can be attributed to our conventional view of organisation and man. He call this view as 'Theory X'.
According to 'Theory X' oriented thinking, management is viewed as the master of an enterprise in directing economic activity and allocation of resources. Management, to them, is getting work done through other people and hence a manager needs to control the behaviour of other people in the organisation. They feel that the organisation can suitably intervene in the process of direction. Controlling and motivating people to accomplish the purpose of the organisation.
Behind these views there are a few assumptions about human nature and human behaviour:
1) "The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can";
2) "Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of organisational objectives", and
3) "The average human being prefers to he directed, wishes avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all."
1) "The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can";
2) "Because of this human characteristic of dislike of work, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, threatened with punishment to get them put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of organisational objectives", and
3) "The average human being prefers to he directed, wishes avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and wants security above all."
'Theory X' assumes human beings as lazy, lacking in ambition, resisting change, non-creative, capable of being deceived easily, etc. In such a case, management has two strategies to adopt, viz., hard and soft.
1. Hard strategy implies the use of techniques like close supervision, tight control, coercion and threat.
2. Soft strategy is more permissive, meets the demands and attempts to harmonise the demands for organisation and that of employees.
1. Hard strategy implies the use of techniques like close supervision, tight control, coercion and threat.
2. Soft strategy is more permissive, meets the demands and attempts to harmonise the demands for organisation and that of employees.
But both these strategies have problems. For example, if the management is hard, it may lead to militant unionism, sabotage, and antagonism. On the other hand soft management in its anxiety to purchase harmony may abdicate itself.
McGregor notes that this conventional management approach is inadequate as it creates more problems than it solves. He emphasised the need to study the motivational factors to understand the organisational behaviour. For, he believes, deprivation of needs has behavioural consequences at all levels. Hostility and passivity among employees are not inherent in human nature. They are only symptoms of deprivation of human needs.
'Theory X' explains the consequences of management strategy and it does not explain human nature. The assumptions on human nature under 'theory X' are unnecessarily limiting. Such assumptions prevent the management from seeing possibilities in other strategies. Even when we use techniques like decentralisation and cnnsultative supervision, their implementation would be based on inadequate assumptions of human nature. Finally McCregor emphasises that the assumptions of 'Theory X' would not discover human potentialities in their entirity.
'Theory X' which represents classifical administrative theory lays stress on efficiency and economy. As the human being tries to avoid work, this inherent human tendency should be counteracted by the management. Therefore, 'Theory X' emphaises on direction and control.
'Theory X' only explains the management strategy. It does not explain as to which factors motivate the employee. This also lays emphasis on manager and makes his job more difficult and complex. He cannot expect cooperation from his employees if he continually distrusts them. Manager also has to spend a great part of his time on direction and control. This leaves very little time for policy making and planning. McGregor felt that this traditional view is helpful neither to achieve the goals nor to motivate the employees to accomplish the goals.
Elton Mayo has shown that analysis of human factor and infornal organisation are important to fully understand the organisations. According to Simon values of individuals influence the decision-making process in administration. But unfortunately 'Theory X' assumptions do not explain human behaviour in its totality. McGregor, therefore, proposed an alternative theory called 'Theory Y' .
THEORY Y : A NEW THEORY OF MANAGEMENT
McGregor holds the opinion that 'Theory X' assumptions about organisation, management and man are obstacles to performance and productivity. They are inadequate to realise all the human potentialities. Therefore, in place of 'Theory X' McGregor proposed a new theory broadly known as 'Theory Y'.
McGregor holds the opinion that 'Theory X' assumptions about organisation, management and man are obstacles to performance and productivity. They are inadequate to realise all the human potentialities. Therefore, in place of 'Theory X' McGregor proposed a new theory broadly known as 'Theory Y'.
This new theory gives a new look to the relationships between human being and management. According to this theory the management is responsible for coordinating the activities in an organisation and for accomplishing its purposes. In his new theory McGregor replaces 'direction and control' by 'integration'.
The assumptions about: human nature under 'Theory Y' are :
1) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Depending upon controllable conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction (and will be voluntarily performed) or a source of punishment (and will be avoided if possible).
2) External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3) Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards, e.g., the satisfaction of ego and self-actualisation needs, can be direct products of efforts directed towards organisational objectives.
4) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition, and emphasis on security are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.
5) The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
6) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised.
1) The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest. The average human being does not inherently dislike work. Depending upon controllable conditions, work may be a source of satisfaction (and will be voluntarily performed) or a source of punishment (and will be avoided if possible).
2) External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means for bringing about effort towards organisational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed.
3) Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards, e.g., the satisfaction of ego and self-actualisation needs, can be direct products of efforts directed towards organisational objectives.
4) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to accept but to seek responsibility. Avoidance of responsibility, lack of ambition, and emphasis on security are generally consequences of experience, not inherent human characteristics.
5) The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organisational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
6) Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilised.
McGregor suggests that there is a need for a new management strategy which is more dynamic than static. This strategy should provide for human growth and development. It should discover the human resources who have substantial potentialities to contribute to the organisations. 'Theory Y' underlines the importance of maintaining an organisation where people feel confident and motivated. It emphasises developing and improving performance orientation of the people working in the organisations.
It involves lot of leadership skills on the part of the managers to achieve these objectives. The cornerstone of McGregor's framework is self-restraint, self-direction, goal orientation and human values in the organisajion.
It involves lot of leadership skills on the part of the managers to achieve these objectives. The cornerstone of McGregor's framework is self-restraint, self-direction, goal orientation and human values in the organisajion.
McGregor says that 'Theory Y' is an invitation to innovation. The innovative ideas consistent with 'Theory Y' assumptions are delegation and decentralisation of authority and responsibility; making jobs more and more appealing by job redesign; participative system of involving more and more people in decision-making process; and developing appropriate performance appraisal systems.
McGregor's 'Theory Y' emphasises integration. To him integration means, "creation of conditions such that, the members of organisation can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the enterprises". In this, both organisational needs and individual needs are identified and integrated. It implies both management and employees working together. This approach is also known as management by integration and self control. The major steps involved in this process are :
1. Determining job requirements: The manager has to understand the purpose and productivity indicators of his job, so that he can guide his associates towards the achievement of key result areas.
2. Goal setting: Once the manager knows the purpose of his job, he has to formulate goals with reference to quantity, quality, and time. This is normally done in consultation with one's associates and supervisors. Once there is an agreement on desired and committed goals, it will be easier to evaluate objectively at any point of time in the future.
3. In between-period: In between the period of goal setting and its final evaluation in performance appraisal, a manager has to use his self-control and direction to develop his associates. This requires leadership skills on the part of managers.
4. Self appraisal: A manager has to evaluate his own performance against the goals set and agreed. While doing this analysis, he has to measure each of the performance indicators as against the agreed targets. This gives an objective picture of targets and achievements of the manager with reference to quality, quantity and time. It also provides an opportuniiy to analyse the set-backs and short-comings and helps in goal setting in the future. The importance of this step is that it enhances the understanding between the organisation and the individual.
McGregor's 'Theory Y' emphasises integration. To him integration means, "creation of conditions such that, the members of organisation can achieve their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the enterprises". In this, both organisational needs and individual needs are identified and integrated. It implies both management and employees working together. This approach is also known as management by integration and self control. The major steps involved in this process are :
1. Determining job requirements: The manager has to understand the purpose and productivity indicators of his job, so that he can guide his associates towards the achievement of key result areas.
2. Goal setting: Once the manager knows the purpose of his job, he has to formulate goals with reference to quantity, quality, and time. This is normally done in consultation with one's associates and supervisors. Once there is an agreement on desired and committed goals, it will be easier to evaluate objectively at any point of time in the future.
3. In between-period: In between the period of goal setting and its final evaluation in performance appraisal, a manager has to use his self-control and direction to develop his associates. This requires leadership skills on the part of managers.
4. Self appraisal: A manager has to evaluate his own performance against the goals set and agreed. While doing this analysis, he has to measure each of the performance indicators as against the agreed targets. This gives an objective picture of targets and achievements of the manager with reference to quality, quantity and time. It also provides an opportuniiy to analyse the set-backs and short-comings and helps in goal setting in the future. The importance of this step is that it enhances the understanding between the organisation and the individual.
'THEORY X' AND 'THEORY Y' : AN EVALUATION
McGregor's 'X' and 'Y' theories are based on diametrically opposed assumptions of human nature. The latter theory holds that man is positive with potentiality to development. This has implications for management. McGregor observes that if employees are lazy, indifferent, unwilling to take responsibility, stubborn, noncreative and noncooperative, the cause lies with management's methods of control. Theories 'X' and 'Y' should not be taken as neat categories of human relationships. They are only analytical tools through which behaviour can be analysed, predicted and corrected. After McGregor, many scholars have gone beyond 'Theory Y' in analysing the human nature and its implications to organisation. This, a however does not reduce the importance of McGregor's contributions.
McGregor's 'X' and 'Y' theories are based on diametrically opposed assumptions of human nature. The latter theory holds that man is positive with potentiality to development. This has implications for management. McGregor observes that if employees are lazy, indifferent, unwilling to take responsibility, stubborn, noncreative and noncooperative, the cause lies with management's methods of control. Theories 'X' and 'Y' should not be taken as neat categories of human relationships. They are only analytical tools through which behaviour can be analysed, predicted and corrected. After McGregor, many scholars have gone beyond 'Theory Y' in analysing the human nature and its implications to organisation. This, a however does not reduce the importance of McGregor's contributions.
CONCLUSION:
To sum up Maslow and McGregor are believers in the human side of organisation. Maslow's theory of need hierarchy has the distinction of demarcating between the self-internalisation need and all other needs which satisfy some deficiency. McGregor's views and the framework he propounded opened new vistas in management thought. The social-psycholcgical theorists provided a new technology to understand the age old question of understanding human beings in organisations
To sum up Maslow and McGregor are believers in the human side of organisation. Maslow's theory of need hierarchy has the distinction of demarcating between the self-internalisation need and all other needs which satisfy some deficiency. McGregor's views and the framework he propounded opened new vistas in management thought. The social-psycholcgical theorists provided a new technology to understand the age old question of understanding human beings in organisations
KEY WORDS
1. Decentralisation: Dispersal or distribution of authority throughout all levels of management
2. Esteem : Think highly of
3. Hierarchy: Presence of number of tiers or levels, one above the other in the organisation with authority flowing from higher to lower levels.
4. Motivate: Stimulate interest
5. Need: Want, requirement
6. Performance Appraisal: Assessment of how an employee is doing his/her job
7. Supervision: Act of overseeing or guiding the activities of subordinates by superiors
8. Strategy: Plan of action
1. Decentralisation: Dispersal or distribution of authority throughout all levels of management
2. Esteem : Think highly of
3. Hierarchy: Presence of number of tiers or levels, one above the other in the organisation with authority flowing from higher to lower levels.
4. Motivate: Stimulate interest
5. Need: Want, requirement
6. Performance Appraisal: Assessment of how an employee is doing his/her job
7. Supervision: Act of overseeing or guiding the activities of subordinates by superiors
8. Strategy: Plan of action
Surely a commendable effort.Keep up the good work.We need more blogs like this for public administration students.
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