INTRODUCTION : Karl Marx was a great social revolutionary as well as a social scientist. His influence continues to be felt not only in social sciences, philosophy and literature, but also through revolutions in countries like Russia, China and Vietnam. His thought is being interpreted and re-interpreted in different ways by several schools, such as the Frankfurt school, the existentialists, the structuralists, Russian communists, Chinese communists, Trotskyists and so on. The combination of revolutionary thought and action in Marx's work is of special significance for underdeveloped countries where revolutionary movements are growing.
Marx was born in Germany in 1818. He did his PhD in Ancient Greek philosophy. His revolutionary views prevented his appointment as a university Teacher, and led to his exile from country after country. He wrote voluminously but always remained poor, which resulted in much suffering for his family. He participated in the revolutionary movement in France which led to the short-lived Paris Commune in 1870. He died in 1883, leaving most of his works unfinished.
Marx's ideas on administration are spread over his numerous works. He has dealt with the rise of bureaucracy, its role in developed and developing countries, its dysfunctions, its destruction in the course of the socialist revolution, and its supersession in the new non-exploitative society.
OBJECTIVES :
1. Understand the significance of Marx's views on bureaucracy
2. Explain the characteristics of bureaucracy identified by Karl Marx, and
3. Discuss the criticism of Marx's views on bureaucracy.
1. Understand the significance of Marx's views on bureaucracy
2. Explain the characteristics of bureaucracy identified by Karl Marx, and
3. Discuss the criticism of Marx's views on bureaucracy.
RISE OF BUREAUCRACY
Marx points out that, bureaucracy arose with capitalism at the nation state in Western - Europe around the sixteenth century. The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of merchant capitalists and absolute monarchs led to the need of an instrument for the management of wealth and the exercise of power. This instrument was the bureaucracy. With its help capitalists competed against other capitalists and monarch curbed feudal lords.
In medieval society trade was local, that is within the village or between nearby villages. The invention of steamships made it possible to trade with distant places. The merchant adventurers who had to go to trade distant places, were however, insecure. Their security could be ensured only through a state which exercised sway over a large area. This need of far-flung trade gave rise to the nation state. It is notable that in earlier times there were either city states or empires. Nation states arose for the first time around the sixteenth century. However the king could not administer such a large area except through a large number of officials controlled from the centre. These officials constitute the bureaucracy. Hence the bureaucracy is associated with capitalism and the nation state. This also suggests that if capitalism and the nation state could be superseded, bureaucracy would also become obsolete.
Marx points out that, bureaucracy arose with capitalism at the nation state in Western - Europe around the sixteenth century. The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of merchant capitalists and absolute monarchs led to the need of an instrument for the management of wealth and the exercise of power. This instrument was the bureaucracy. With its help capitalists competed against other capitalists and monarch curbed feudal lords.
In medieval society trade was local, that is within the village or between nearby villages. The invention of steamships made it possible to trade with distant places. The merchant adventurers who had to go to trade distant places, were however, insecure. Their security could be ensured only through a state which exercised sway over a large area. This need of far-flung trade gave rise to the nation state. It is notable that in earlier times there were either city states or empires. Nation states arose for the first time around the sixteenth century. However the king could not administer such a large area except through a large number of officials controlled from the centre. These officials constitute the bureaucracy. Hence the bureaucracy is associated with capitalism and the nation state. This also suggests that if capitalism and the nation state could be superseded, bureaucracy would also become obsolete.
ROLE OF BUREAUCRACY
Feudalism continued in part for about two centuries even after the coming into being of the nation state. In France, the Revolution of 1789 did away with some of the relics of feudalism; however, it was only the Revolution of 1830 that led to the transfer of power from the landlords to the capitalists. Similar changes took place in other countries. The dissolution of feudalism and the rise of capitalism meant that more and more people were now taking up jobs in factories owned by capitalists. Since handicrafts could not compete with industry, artisans like weavers, shoemakers, blacksmiths, carpenters, and so on, were thrown out of employment, and had to seek jobs in industry. The introduction of newer and newer technology has always maintained some unemployment. Due to unemployment and poverty, workers in a capitalist society can be forced to perform back-breaking labour for long hours at low wages. Marx has described in detail how even children were exploited in the factories of England in the nineteenth century. While working conditions in Western countries improved due to the wealth they obtained from the colonies and also due to unionisation of labour, capitalist exploitation can now be seen in underdeveloped countries like India.
Feudalism continued in part for about two centuries even after the coming into being of the nation state. In France, the Revolution of 1789 did away with some of the relics of feudalism; however, it was only the Revolution of 1830 that led to the transfer of power from the landlords to the capitalists. Similar changes took place in other countries. The dissolution of feudalism and the rise of capitalism meant that more and more people were now taking up jobs in factories owned by capitalists. Since handicrafts could not compete with industry, artisans like weavers, shoemakers, blacksmiths, carpenters, and so on, were thrown out of employment, and had to seek jobs in industry. The introduction of newer and newer technology has always maintained some unemployment. Due to unemployment and poverty, workers in a capitalist society can be forced to perform back-breaking labour for long hours at low wages. Marx has described in detail how even children were exploited in the factories of England in the nineteenth century. While working conditions in Western countries improved due to the wealth they obtained from the colonies and also due to unionisation of labour, capitalist exploitation can now be seen in underdeveloped countries like India.
According to Marx, all value is produced, by human labour. However workers receive only a notion of the value produced by them in the form of wages. The other portion, which is retained by the capitalist constitutes their exploitation. Hence exploitation which can be measured in this way, is always present in capitalist relations of production.
The huge profits of capitalists are derived from the exploitation of a large number of workers. A capitalist cannot manage so many workers all alone. He has to employ managers for this purpose. These managers and officials associated with them constitute the bureaucracy. Hence, according to Marx, bureaucracy consists of officials who control the workers on behalf of the owners or rulers. Its function is to get work out of the workers under the exploitative conditions of capitalism.
The governmental bureaucracy has a similar function in regard to workers employed by the government. There are large number of workers in government owned railways, roadways, power stations, and other undertakings. Large number of workers are employed by the government in non-industrial occupations also such as postmen, nurses, teachers, mechanics, and so on. Some of the workers have a higher status than others; thus engineers, doctors, architects and scientists are also involved in productive activity, and hence are workers with a high status. All these workers have to be kept under check. For this Purpose, control is exercised over them by the bureaucracy. Bureaucracy consists of administrators and managers who do not perform the productive activity themselves, but only control workers.
Thus members of the Indian Administrative Service and also those of State Administrative Services advise ministers and in consultation with them, direct, supervise and control the workers involved in productive activity. In recent days in India doctors, engineers, teachers, nurses and other workers demonstrated for better working Conditions and even went on strikes. Some of them were punished: the punishments were administered by administrative officers, such as a Director or a Secretary to the concerned government. On behalf of the government, if necessary, negotiations with the workers were also conducted, by administrative officers. These administrative officers, then, constitute the bureaucracy: their function is to control the workers on behalf of the government.
Another function of the governmental bureaucracy is to help in maintaining capitalist relations of production in the wider society. Thus, if workers in a private firm go on a strike, the capitalist can get the help of the police for keeping them under check. The government provides protection and assistance to private industry and trade in many ways. Thus it protects domestic industrialists from competition by foreign industrialists through the imposition of import duties. It manages the economy through fiscal and monetary policies so as to maintain effective demand for goods produced by industry. It provides means of transport and communication, electric power at cheap rates, and key goods for industry and agriculture. All these services to the private sector are channelized through governmental bureaucracy. The governmental bureaucracy implements labour laws so as to keep the wheels of industry moving and maintain the profits of the capitalists. Thus the governmental bureaucracy performs the important function of maintaining and developing capitalism.
Another function of the governmental bureaucracy is to help in maintaining capitalist relations of production in the wider society. Thus, if workers in a private firm go on a strike, the capitalist can get the help of the police for keeping them under check. The government provides protection and assistance to private industry and trade in many ways. Thus it protects domestic industrialists from competition by foreign industrialists through the imposition of import duties. It manages the economy through fiscal and monetary policies so as to maintain effective demand for goods produced by industry. It provides means of transport and communication, electric power at cheap rates, and key goods for industry and agriculture. All these services to the private sector are channelized through governmental bureaucracy. The governmental bureaucracy implements labour laws so as to keep the wheels of industry moving and maintain the profits of the capitalists. Thus the governmental bureaucracy performs the important function of maintaining and developing capitalism.
According to Marx, the path to socialism lies mostly, through capitalism. Hence, while on the one hand the development of capitalism accentuates exploitation, on the other hand it prepares the way to socialism.
BUREAUCRATIC POWER AND MILITARY DICTATORSHIP
In the course of functioning as the instrument of maintenance and development of capitalism, the bureaucracy acquires power of its own. The basis of its power is detailed information, particularly secret information. That is why it jealously guards secret information, not only from the people in general, but also from legislators and even from ministers. Ministers are busy with political affairs and have to depend upon the bureaucracy for information and advice. Thus, the bureaucracy comes to have an important role in policy formulation also. If unions and Associations of the people and political parties are weak, they are unable to communicate the needs and grievances of the people to the government. In this situation of political under development, the bureaucracy becomes the main channel of communication between the government and the people.
In the course of functioning as the instrument of maintenance and development of capitalism, the bureaucracy acquires power of its own. The basis of its power is detailed information, particularly secret information. That is why it jealously guards secret information, not only from the people in general, but also from legislators and even from ministers. Ministers are busy with political affairs and have to depend upon the bureaucracy for information and advice. Thus, the bureaucracy comes to have an important role in policy formulation also. If unions and Associations of the people and political parties are weak, they are unable to communicate the needs and grievances of the people to the government. In this situation of political under development, the bureaucracy becomes the main channel of communication between the government and the people.
Since the bureaucracy is better informed about the problems which the people face, than even the so-called representatives of the people, dependence upon it increases, thus giving it more and more power. Hence, in normal times also, the bureaucracy is quite powerful due to the possession of secret information; its power is greater in underdeveloped countries due to the weakness of unions of the people and of political parties. Added to these is the factor of the power hunger of the bureaucracy. Marx says that, "The bureaucracy takes itself to be the ultimate purpose of the state, it comes into conflict everywhere with 'real' objectives", in other words, it attaches more importance to serving its own interests than those of people and so become a parasitic body. There are certain special situations in which the bureaucracy itself comes to rule. This is the situation of a military dictatorship. The military is also a bureaucracy. Now-a-days there are military dictatorships in many underdeveloped countries. Marx provides an explanation for such rule by the military and civil bureaucracy. He suggests that when two powerful classes with conflicting interests becomes equally balanced in power, they let the bureaucracy rule to avoid continuous warfare between themselves.
CHARACTERISTICS OF BUREAUCRACY
Some of the features that characterize the bureaucracy as described by Karl Marx:
Some of the features that characterize the bureaucracy as described by Karl Marx:
1 Division of Labour : Marx agrees that the division of labour makes the organisation of capitalist society highly productive. However, he points our that the basic division of labour which we tend to overlook is between "intellectual and material activity". While the workers perform the productive activity, the capitalists and bureaucrats perform only intellectual activity. Hence all the hard work falls on the workers in the name of the division of labour. Further, the gains of higher productivity go mostly to the capitalists, who share these to some extent with the bureaucracy, as indicated by bureaucracy's high salaries. So far the workers are concerned, high productivity tends to lead to higher unemployment among them, as it happens when high technology is introduced. Increased unemployment tends to lower wages also. Hence increased productivity, due to heightened division of labour may lead to little gain for the workers.
2 Hierarchy : Marx notes that hierarchy is one of the characteristics of bureaucracy. He says that while Hegel maintains that hierarchy prevents "arbitrary domination" by bureaucrats, the fact is the very opposite. In his view, it leads to "inevitable" sins. Thus if an official does some wrong to citizens, the tendency of his superiors is to protect him. However, if an official stands up against a wrong being committed by his superiors, he gets punished. Marx makes another interesting criticism of-hierarchy. He says, "The top entrusts the understanding of detail to the lower levels, while the lower levels credit the top with understanding of the general, and so all are mutually deceived". Thus, the complaint of top administrators often is that a good policy has been badly implemented; on the other hand, officials at lower levels often complain about the faultiness of the policy itself. This is what has happened in regard to land reforms in India: the policy makers and those responsible for implementation have been blaming each other for their failure.
3 Training : Marx notes that it is said, for example by Hegel, that liberal education humanizes civil servants. He, however, maintains that the mechanical character of his work and the compulsions of office lead to the dehumanization of the civil servant.
Marx is also critical of the recruitment of members of the bureaucracy through competitive examinations. He says that members of a bureaucracy need statesmanship which cannot be tested through an examination: "One does not hear that the Greek or Roman statesmen passed examinations".
Marx's class analysis would indicate that the main function of examinations is to ensure that only persons of the upper class who can afford the costly higher education are able to enter the bureaucracy. Apart from being costly, higher education inculcates values and attitudes which are supportive of capitalism. Higher education tends to create social distance between the rich and the poor; highly educated people generally think that they are a class apart from the uneducated poor. Hence if a highly educated person is appointed as a manager, the exploitation of workers does not hurt him.
4 Rules : Marx points out that bureaucratic minds are so bound in subordination and passive obedience that they come to think that adherence to rules is an end in itself, and not merely a means to an end. They come to attach more importance to rules than to human beings: "Actual knowledge seems devoid of content just as actual life seems dead".
5. Alienation : The concept of alienation is one of Marx's important contributions to social science and particularly to administrative theory. It refers to the consequences of exploitation for man. Since exploitation is inherent in the administration of large-scale organisations in capitalist society, they suffer from Alienation in an acute form. Alienation has four main aspects: loss of freedom, loss of creativity, loss of humanity, and loss of morality -
A. Loss of Freedom : According to Marx, wherever there is exploitation, the exploiter as well as the exploited suffer from alienation. Hence all the members of the organisation suffer from alienation. Thus workers are under compulsion to take up jobs they can no longer function as independent artisans. Once they have accepted the jobs, they are under the authoritarian command of the management. They are coerced, controlled and threatened with punishment. The managers also suffer from alienation because they are themselves employees. The capitalist also loses his freedom. Marx points out that the capitalist is not free to eat, drink, buy books, or to go to the theatre of dance hall, or even to think, love, theorise, sing, paint etc., as he wishes. He is constrained by the nature of his business. To increase his capital he must save; he cannot spend as he likes.
B. Loss of Creativity : The characteristics of bureaucracy interfere with the creativity of workers. Such interference is sometimes called a dysfunction. Thus division of labour interferes with creativity. Because of division of labour, no worker produces the whole product. Hence the worker has lost the creative satisfaction of an artisan or an artist. Hierarchy has the result that no worker can say that he independently produced anything. The worker himself becomes a mere tool. Rules ensure that workers are all the time under detailed control. The administrator also loses his creativity. Thus the administrator in public administration is anonymous. Even policy making has to be done jointly; even if an administrator is responsible for drawing up a certain policy, he cannot take credit for it. The capitalist loses his creativity because of the big risks involved in a large-scale organisation.
C. Loss of Humanity : In modem large-scale organisations, workers tend to function like machines, thereby losing their humanity. Due to division of labour most workers have no part in deciding the objectives, or how these are to be fulfilled. The office is also structured like a big machine. The workers, whether they are in a factory or an office, function like automata. They have to repeatedly and monotonously perform a job without taking into account its significance or lack of it, for human beings. The managers are in a similar situation too; for, they are also part of a machine-like structure. The capitalist or political ruler also finds himself manipulated by impersonal market or political forces and responds to these without fully taking into account human values.
D. Loss of Morality : According to Marx, the loss of freedom, creativity and humanity necessarily leads to loss of morality. Thus, it is immoral to take away the freedom of workers and convert them into near animals. Loss of creativity also leads to immorality: if engineers or doctors are more interested in making money than in building safe bridges or in curing patients, they become immoral. Loss of humanity, in the sense of being insensitive to the suffering of others, is certainly immoral. Capitalism is based upon competition between nation states, business firms, political parties, and so on. Since competition endangers survival, resort to all means, including immoral ones, is often made for ensuring survival in capitalist society. Hence, according to Marx immorality is inherent in capitalism.
SHARPENING OF CONFLICT BETWEEN CAPITALISTS AND WORKERS
According to Marx the "class struggle" has been going on between the exploiting and exploited classes throughout human history. In capitalist society also, the interests of the capitalist class and the working class conflict with each other, and so their struggle goes on.
According to Marx the "class struggle" has been going on between the exploiting and exploited classes throughout human history. In capitalist society also, the interests of the capitalist class and the working class conflict with each other, and so their struggle goes on.
Marx maintains that while on the one hand, bureaucratization helps the development of capitalism, on the other hand it also prepares for the latter's overthrow. The formation of large-scale organisations brings workers together. Their concentration in industrial locations helps them to organise. The development of the means of transport and , communication helps them to expand their organisation. Their unions thus become country-wide and powerful. After struggling through demanstrations and strikes, their struggle begins to bring fruit such as higher wages and the shortening of the working day.
Finally, the organised strength of the workers is able to overthrow the exploitative capitalist system through a revolution. With capitalism goes bureaucracy also, for the main function of bureaucracy, namely controlling workers, no longer needs to be performed. Capitalism, which really was the dictatorship of the capitalist class, is now replaced by the dictatorship of the proletariat. The dictatorship of the proletariat is a short-lived period for the ushering in of the new socialist society. The new society is classless and so has no need for the state, since the function of the state is the maintenance of the domination of one class over another. Hence the state gradually withers away.
ADMINISTRATION IN MARX'S SOCIALIST SOCIETY
Marx did not try to describe in detail the nature of the future socialist society, since that would be utopian. It will be what we make it to be. Instead of speculating, Marx examined the nature of the "Paris Commune" which had been set up after a revolution. The administration of the Paris Commune can give us some idea of the possible nature of the administration in the socialist society of the future, as follows:
1. There would be "self-government of the producers", in other words the new society would be wholly democratic.
2. The standing army would be disbanded;
3. The people themselves would take to arms when need arose.
4. There would be communes at rural, district and national levels.
5. The central government would have only a few important functions: there would be decentralization.
6. The system of election would be indirect and based upon universal suffrage; all the elected members would be subject to recall at any time.
7. The commune would be both an executive and legislative body.
8. The police would be stripped of its political attributes and turned into responsible and revocable agents of the commune.
9. The public service would be done at workmen's wages.
10. Education would be free and accessible to all.
11. Judges would be elected, responsible and revocable, so as to be free from control by the government.
Marx did not try to describe in detail the nature of the future socialist society, since that would be utopian. It will be what we make it to be. Instead of speculating, Marx examined the nature of the "Paris Commune" which had been set up after a revolution. The administration of the Paris Commune can give us some idea of the possible nature of the administration in the socialist society of the future, as follows:
1. There would be "self-government of the producers", in other words the new society would be wholly democratic.
2. The standing army would be disbanded;
3. The people themselves would take to arms when need arose.
4. There would be communes at rural, district and national levels.
5. The central government would have only a few important functions: there would be decentralization.
6. The system of election would be indirect and based upon universal suffrage; all the elected members would be subject to recall at any time.
7. The commune would be both an executive and legislative body.
8. The police would be stripped of its political attributes and turned into responsible and revocable agents of the commune.
9. The public service would be done at workmen's wages.
10. Education would be free and accessible to all.
11. Judges would be elected, responsible and revocable, so as to be free from control by the government.
CRITICAL APPRAISAL
Marx has been criticised by various writers on a number of grounds. Some of the criticisms:
1. It has been said that Marx's hope of ending class domination is unrealistic since domination has always been there. In response to this criticism, however, it can be said that what has not happened in the past can happen in future. Human beings are free to make their own future, despite constraints.
Marx has been criticised by various writers on a number of grounds. Some of the criticisms:
1. It has been said that Marx's hope of ending class domination is unrealistic since domination has always been there. In response to this criticism, however, it can be said that what has not happened in the past can happen in future. Human beings are free to make their own future, despite constraints.
2. Another criticism is that Marx's hope that large-scale organisations like the nation state can be done away with is unjustified. And if large-scale organisations are there, bureaucracy will also be there. However, it is notable that the nation state arose only with capitalism. Capitalism makes for largeness of organisations because of competition. In a society where competition is no longer so important, largeness may be avoided. New technology also seems lo be leading in the same direction. Thus the use of solar, water and wind power is likely to reduce the need for large power grids. Electronics also makes for smaller machines. Smaller machines make for smaller organisations.
3. It is sometimes said that equality can never be achieved in practice, since human beings are born unequal. However, the fact is that every human being has some creative potential. The reason why only some people seem to be capable of big achievement is that many people get no opportunity for the development of their potential.
4. It is held that competition and inequality of rewards are necessary for providing motivation. The fact, however, is that the greatest achievers like great artists and scientists of the past never competed, except with themselves. In a normal person motivation is mostly due to the creative urge; competition makes for unnecessary tension leading to diseases.
4. It is held that competition and inequality of rewards are necessary for providing motivation. The fact, however, is that the greatest achievers like great artists and scientists of the past never competed, except with themselves. In a normal person motivation is mostly due to the creative urge; competition makes for unnecessary tension leading to diseases.
5. Aggression, it is sometimes held, is natural to human beings; hence wars and standing armies cannot be abolished. However, the view that aggression is natural to human beings is considered to be obsolete. Now it is considered to be associated with abnormality, if it is in an acute form.
6. Marx is sometimes criticised for supporting dictatorship. We have noted above, however, that Marx stood for self-government of the workers. The short-lived dictatorship of the proletariat is needed only to deal with the prevailing dictatorship of the capitalist class.
SUMMERY
We have discussed about the views of Karl Marx on bureaucracy. He provides a serious criticism of Marx Weber's ideal type of bureaucracy. His explanation of bureaucracy and its characteristics provides an alternative perspective on the nature of bureaucracy.
We have discussed about the views of Karl Marx on bureaucracy. He provides a serious criticism of Marx Weber's ideal type of bureaucracy. His explanation of bureaucracy and its characteristics provides an alternative perspective on the nature of bureaucracy.
KEY WORDS
City-State : A State consisting of a sovereign city and its dependencies.
Commune : An association whose members own everything in common, including the product of their labour.
Trotskyism : The Theory of Communism of Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), Russian revolutionary and writer, in which he called for immediate worldwide revolution by the proletariat.
Utopia : Any real or imaginary society, place, state etc., considered to be perfect or ideal.
City-State : A State consisting of a sovereign city and its dependencies.
Commune : An association whose members own everything in common, including the product of their labour.
Trotskyism : The Theory of Communism of Leon Trotsky (1879-1940), Russian revolutionary and writer, in which he called for immediate worldwide revolution by the proletariat.
Utopia : Any real or imaginary society, place, state etc., considered to be perfect or ideal.
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