INTRODUCTION
BUREAUCRACY is a term with strong emotional overtones and elusive implications. Bureaucracy is also a much researched area by Public Administrationists, Political Scientists, Sociologists and many others. As a result, there is no terminological accuracy about the concept of bureaucracy. To some, it is efficiency and to others, it is inefficiency. To some it is a term synonymous with civil service and to others it refers to a body of officials. It is this that has made one scholar to comment that 'bureaucracy is a notorious word of our age'. It is, therefore, necessary to know what is the origin of the term and what are its different meanings.
BUREAUCRACY is a term with strong emotional overtones and elusive implications. Bureaucracy is also a much researched area by Public Administrationists, Political Scientists, Sociologists and many others. As a result, there is no terminological accuracy about the concept of bureaucracy. To some, it is efficiency and to others, it is inefficiency. To some it is a term synonymous with civil service and to others it refers to a body of officials. It is this that has made one scholar to comment that 'bureaucracy is a notorious word of our age'. It is, therefore, necessary to know what is the origin of the term and what are its different meanings.
OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain the origin of the term bureaucracy
2. Describe different meanings with which bureaucracy is being used
3. Point out different types of bureaucracy and
4. Explain the maladies of bureaucracy
1. Explain the origin of the term bureaucracy
2. Describe different meanings with which bureaucracy is being used
3. Point out different types of bureaucracy and
4. Explain the maladies of bureaucracy
ORIGIN OF THE TERM
The term bureaucracy is derived from the Latin term 'bureau' which means a writing table or desk. In French 'La Bure' means a cloth used on tables of public authorities. From table cloth, the table covered by cloth got the name 'bureau'. Later 'bureau' began to be used for the office room where table is kept. Thus by 18th century the term began to be used to refer to a place where officials work. The suffix 'cracy' in Greek means 'rule' Thus bureaucracy refers to rule of officials. During 18th and 19th centuries, the term was used consistently. It meant power of officials in Public Administration. It was also referred to the authority or power which the government departments claim to themselves.
The term bureaucracy is derived from the Latin term 'bureau' which means a writing table or desk. In French 'La Bure' means a cloth used on tables of public authorities. From table cloth, the table covered by cloth got the name 'bureau'. Later 'bureau' began to be used for the office room where table is kept. Thus by 18th century the term began to be used to refer to a place where officials work. The suffix 'cracy' in Greek means 'rule' Thus bureaucracy refers to rule of officials. During 18th and 19th centuries, the term was used consistently. It meant power of officials in Public Administration. It was also referred to the authority or power which the government departments claim to themselves.
It was a Frenchman 'De Gournay' who first coined the term bureaucracy in the middle of the eighteenth century. He used the term to complain against the bureaucracy. He said that we have an illness in Frank which plays havoc with us, this illness is called 'bureaumania'. This means 'de Gournay' used the term in a complaining tone. This is evident when he said that officials are not appointed to perform public interests, but public interest is established so that offices might exist.
Thus, 'de Gournay' has identified a new group of rulers and methods of governing wherein the governing became an end in itself. There were some who believe that the term originated in Germany and was later popularised in France. This was mainly because German newspapers used the term while reporting about the French Revolution. Ever since its origin it rapidly became part of the international vocabulary of Political Science and Public Administration. In France, the term was first popularised by the novelist Balzac. Later the French bureaukratie became the German bureaukaratie, the Italian Burocrazia and the English bureaucracy. Twenty five conceptualizations, however, took place at the hands of Mosca, Michels and Max Weber.
MEANING OF BUREAUCRACY
The term 'bureaucracy' is being used with different meanings to signify different things. This made Fred Riggs to comment that the term can now be used without much sense of strain for about forty marginally differentiated senses, falling under ten headings'. It is therefore necessary for us to understand what these different meanings are. After the term bureaucracy was coined by 'de Gournay', it has attracted attention from a number of scholars from different disciplines. It has its admirers as well as opponents.
The term 'bureaucracy' is being used with different meanings to signify different things. This made Fred Riggs to comment that the term can now be used without much sense of strain for about forty marginally differentiated senses, falling under ten headings'. It is therefore necessary for us to understand what these different meanings are. After the term bureaucracy was coined by 'de Gournay', it has attracted attention from a number of scholars from different disciplines. It has its admirers as well as opponents.
Max Weber, the Sociologist had almost "internalised" this concept; whereas writers like Warren Bennis condemned the behavioural aspects of bureaucracy And even predicted its demise. There are also other writers who took a balanced view of the concept. Bureaucracy, however, was originally conceived as a negative or perverse concept. It was 'Mex Weber', a German sociologist, who gave it a respectable and positive implication. Bureaucracy, in its simplest form, can be seen as "officials in power" or "a class of officials" or "bureaucrats exercising their power to carry on their constitutional duties and obligations". The need to use it as an equivalent to the term "officials" or "administrators", has forced the writers to point out its negative connotations. Pehaps, no other term is as appealing as bureaucracy to describe officials or officialdom.
The different meanings of the term bureaucracy:
1. Bureaucratic Policy: At the time of its genesis, when de Gourny coined it, bureaucracy was linked to a type of political system, in the way, terms like "aristocracy", "monarchy", and "democracy" were linked up with different political systems. J.S. Mill used the term bureaucracy to denote the professional governors of the government in a society. Harold Laski also used it, in a similar sense. To him, bureaucracy is rule of the officials in a system of government. But, Laski added that the "rule is so complete, that it jeopardies the liberties of ordinary citizens". Herman Finer, a political scientist also described bureaucracy as rule by government officials. Lasswell and Kapfan viewed it as a government where the elite are officials. However, in course of time bureaucracy in this form, has lost this connotation.
2. Bureaucrats in Power: A number of writers and scholars described the term bureaucrats to denote power managers in a system of government. J.S. Mill, for example, denoted bureaucracy as a ruling class of officials. Mosca described bureaucracy as one class of ruling elites whose, rule is absolute. Michels has expanded the concept of bureaucracy to include salaried professionals in government and non-governmental agencies such as political parties. Writers like Ramsay Muir viewed bureaucracy as permanent officials and professional administrators. The growing power and influence of bureaucracy was also recognized by later writers.
3. Office Holders: Bureaucracy is also used synonymously with office-holders with or without power. J.S. Mill, for example, hinted at the possibility of a non-dominant bureaucracy: It is used in an administrative context to complain about its inefficiency rather than its abuse of power. Max Weber referred bureaucracy as a positive, non-dominant body, when he said, 'no exercise of authority can be purely bureaucratic', That is how a simplistic notion of bureaucracy developed and it is seen in the writings of Taylor Cole and Joseph Lapalambora. The latter used the term to encompass all public servants.
4. Bureaucracy as an Ideal construct : Max Weber's conception of an ideal type bureaucracy is a theoretical form which in its true form may or may not be found in the real world. Idealist conceptions have at-least a degree of difference from their real world entities, Max Weber, one of the earliest to conceptualise, in his ideal type bureaucracy attributed the following features to the bureaucracy: impersonality, hierarchy, specified duties, contracts, professional qualifications, salary, full-time careers, separation of office from ownership and centralised power. However, all the characteristics of the ideal bureaucracy are not accepted by the followers of Weber. For instance, Robert C. Stone described bureaucracy, as a type of organisation characterised by "rationality in decision making, impersonality in social relations, rationalisation of tasks and centralisation of authority". By this description, Stone offered a second definition of bureaucracy.
5. Bureaucracy as Organization : Sociologists used 'organisation' in a micro and limited sense, synonymously with the term 'bureaucracy'. Thus, in their view, bureaucracy is an apparatus (as used in Physical science), the word organisation is mostly used by the sociologists and next by the business administration writers. They use it in a total or holistic sense. which covers the organisation and its members as one and the same and are inseparable. Thus organisation and bureaucracy have become synonymous terms as used by many writers including Talcot Parsons, Hyneman, and Caplow. It is used to mean not just a class of office holders but rather the organisation in which they work. Thus the term is used to denote both the organisation as well as its members. In the same sense bureaucracy is identified with government at macro levels, where the entire system of government is referred to as bureaucracy.
6. Bureaucracy as Society: Some writers have extended the scope of this term under reference to societies, hence the usage of the term bureaucratic society. Perhaps this is in tune with the expressions such as communism, capitalism and socialism which denotes a kind of social system as well as a political and economic structure. The idea is that in a society where bureaucracy plays a dominant role, it can be referred as a bureaucratic society. More clearly in such a society, social relationships are influenced by the bureaucratic behaviour. Mention of such societies can be found in the writings of Karl Wittfogel and James Burnham. Wittfogel argues that the ruling officialdom in pre-industrial societies dominate the peasant- masters and hence the term 'bureaucratic society' is appropriate to describe the social phenomenon. Burnham's view is that in a nuclear society managers as a class dominate the polity and society.
A look at the business war games, and corporate battles in today's U.S.A., Japan and other nations would explain the case. Presthus, on the other hand, holds an together different view from Wittfogel and Burnham, when it comes to the '. interpretation of the term bureaucratic society. According to Presthus, a large organization is a symbol of the society in which it is an integral part, in terms of life styles of its members. In countries like the USA we can see real life examples of large organisations carrying on the essential features of the society at large. Based on this, Albrow, concludes that it is not out of place to think of bureaucracy as a type of society. Perhaps we can see such societies in other industrial nations as well.
7. Bureaucracy and Rationality: The Weberian concept of rational legal bureaucracy has led to an unending debate. There is hardly any opposition to his idea of legality linked to bureaucracy. What is questioned is his concept of rationality of bureaucracy. Perhaps, in administration, rationality means cost-effectiveness, productivity and purpose. Peter Blau, believes that bureaucracy as an organisation maximizes efficiency in administration. G.R. Francis and R.C. Stone endorsed the same opinion when they said that bureaucracy maintains stability and efficiency in organisiations that are large and complex. Peter Leonard also holds similar view when he says that 'bureaucracy refers to rational and clear cut activities that are directed towards fulfilling the purposes of the organisation. In other words, today's concern with productivity of the government and officialdom, managerial and organisational productivity have their origins in the term 'bureau-rationality'.
8. Dictionary Meaning of Bureaucracy : Apart from Weber's ideal type definition and subsequent definitions by his followers, some dictionary meanings of bureaucracy are available. Webster's Third International Cambridge Dictionary defines bureaucracy as 'systematic administration characterised by specialisation of functions, objective qualifications for office, action according to fixed rules and a hierarchy of authority'. In the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences, Laski maintains that the term is used for a system of government, the control of which is so completely in the hands of officials that their power jeopardises the liberties of ordinary citizens. Robert C. Stone in the Dictionary of Social Sciences uses bureaucracy as a type of organisation characterised by rationality in decision-making, impersonality in social relations, routinisation of tasks and concentration of authority. Thus bureaucracy is characterised in the dictionaries and encyclopaedias possessing both negative and positive features.
9. Critics' View of Bureaucracy : Critics of bureaucratic behaviour (i.e., negative behaviour) have attributed a number of characteristic features to the term. One of Robert C. Stone's definition includes-red tape, rigid rules and procedural emphasis, as features of bureaucratic organizations. Reinhard Benedix, has mentioned some of the negative characteristics of bureaucracy, such as
(1) failure to allocate clear cut responsibilities;
(2) rigid rules and routines;
(3) blundering officials;
(4) slow operation and buck-passing;
(5) conflicting directives;
(6) empire building; and
(7) concentration of control in the hands of a few.
Webster's Dictionary enlisted several negative characteristics of the term. They are
(1) constant striving for invested functions and power;
(2) lack of initiative and flexibility;
(3) indifference to human needs and public opinion;
(4) tendency to refer decisions to the superiors; and
(5) block action through red tape.
Though, social scientists in general have and used the negative connotations of the term frequently, somehow the negative connotations and meanings have become popular.
TYPES OF BUREAUCRACY:
Bureaucracy is shaped by environmental influences including social, cultural, economic and political factors. At different points of time in history, the bureaucracy has taken different shapes and forms based upon the socio-political influences. Broadly, the bureaucracy is categorized into four types by Morstein Marx viz., Guardian Bureaucracy, Caste bureaucracy, Patronage Bureaucracy, and Merit Bureaucracy:
1 Guardian Bureaucracy : Plato's guardians have the capacity to personify in their actions, the essence of public interest. They were considered the custodians of justice and welfare of the community. These guardians were selected on the basis of their education. Such bureaucracy existed in China before 960 A.D. and in Russia between 640-1740 A.D. Chinese government which conducted its business based-upon Confucious teachings of righteousness is supposed to be a platonic blue print. Duty of officials is to demonstrate-exemplary life and they were selected on the basis of their scholastic achievements and trained in right conduct according to classics. These guardians were expected to develop a moral fortitude and they can exert influence upon the exercise of power subject to righteousness.
Bureaucracy is shaped by environmental influences including social, cultural, economic and political factors. At different points of time in history, the bureaucracy has taken different shapes and forms based upon the socio-political influences. Broadly, the bureaucracy is categorized into four types by Morstein Marx viz., Guardian Bureaucracy, Caste bureaucracy, Patronage Bureaucracy, and Merit Bureaucracy:
1 Guardian Bureaucracy : Plato's guardians have the capacity to personify in their actions, the essence of public interest. They were considered the custodians of justice and welfare of the community. These guardians were selected on the basis of their education. Such bureaucracy existed in China before 960 A.D. and in Russia between 640-1740 A.D. Chinese government which conducted its business based-upon Confucious teachings of righteousness is supposed to be a platonic blue print. Duty of officials is to demonstrate-exemplary life and they were selected on the basis of their scholastic achievements and trained in right conduct according to classics. These guardians were expected to develop a moral fortitude and they can exert influence upon the exercise of power subject to righteousness.
The guardian bureaucracy is apt to idealize absolute practices and thus become traditionalistic and conservative. They are also likely to become aloof from the affairs of the community and political problems of the day. They become authoritarian unresponsive to public opinion.
2 Caste Bureaucracy : This bureaucracy is the result of class connections of those-in power. In this recruitment is made only from one class. This means persons belonging to higher classes or castes are only drawn to the civil services. For example, in ancient India, only Brahmins and Kshatriyas could become higher officials. F.M. Marx notes that the caste bureaucracy manifests in another form i.e., linking the qualifications in the higher posts with arrangements that amount to class preferences. In England, for example, aristocratic classes were preferred to the civil service positions, Appleby commenting on the Indian Civil Service, observes that the personnel are arranged self-consciously in two firm classes and two forms and too many special services with barriers between classes and services, too high... There is too much and too constant consciousness of rank, class, title and service membership, too little consciousness of membership in the public services. Higher the intellectual resources of the bureaucracy, greater the likelihood of class or caste aspect. Social lies will drawn between service groups. It could even be observed that mobility of civil servants will not act as an antidote to caste mentality. Instead, the climber is expected to conform to the mentality of the higher group. The civil services during the early Roman Empire, Japanese Civil Services under Majie Constitution, French Civil Services in 1950's are a few examples of the caste bureaucracy.
3 Patronage Bureaucracy : This type of bureaucracy is also called spoils system. Patronage in this is seen as a means of political control. Under this system, the proteges of the ministers or the elected functionaries are nominated to the civil service. The public jobs are distributed as personal or political favours to their supporters. In Britain, before 19th century, the system sewed the aristocracy to gain entry into the civil services. In United States, which is the traditional home of patronage bureaucracy, it was considered that no one has any more right to official status than the others and that was how the patronage was distributed. But the system of patronage bureaucracy was condemned as an anachronism for its lack of competence, for its careless discipline, its concealed greediness, its irregular ways, its partisanship and for its absence of spirit of service.
4 Merit Bureaucracy : Merit bureaucracy is a response to the maladies of other types of bureaucracies. In this bureaucracy recruitment is based on qualification and is governed by objective, standards. After entry, status and stability are ensured. In modern times, merit bureaucracy puts strong emphasis on political control over the administrative system which was not the case in other forms of bureaucracy. This bureaucracy has a distinguished advantage over others due to its sense of rationality in administrative behaviour.
2 Caste Bureaucracy : This bureaucracy is the result of class connections of those-in power. In this recruitment is made only from one class. This means persons belonging to higher classes or castes are only drawn to the civil services. For example, in ancient India, only Brahmins and Kshatriyas could become higher officials. F.M. Marx notes that the caste bureaucracy manifests in another form i.e., linking the qualifications in the higher posts with arrangements that amount to class preferences. In England, for example, aristocratic classes were preferred to the civil service positions, Appleby commenting on the Indian Civil Service, observes that the personnel are arranged self-consciously in two firm classes and two forms and too many special services with barriers between classes and services, too high... There is too much and too constant consciousness of rank, class, title and service membership, too little consciousness of membership in the public services. Higher the intellectual resources of the bureaucracy, greater the likelihood of class or caste aspect. Social lies will drawn between service groups. It could even be observed that mobility of civil servants will not act as an antidote to caste mentality. Instead, the climber is expected to conform to the mentality of the higher group. The civil services during the early Roman Empire, Japanese Civil Services under Majie Constitution, French Civil Services in 1950's are a few examples of the caste bureaucracy.
3 Patronage Bureaucracy : This type of bureaucracy is also called spoils system. Patronage in this is seen as a means of political control. Under this system, the proteges of the ministers or the elected functionaries are nominated to the civil service. The public jobs are distributed as personal or political favours to their supporters. In Britain, before 19th century, the system sewed the aristocracy to gain entry into the civil services. In United States, which is the traditional home of patronage bureaucracy, it was considered that no one has any more right to official status than the others and that was how the patronage was distributed. But the system of patronage bureaucracy was condemned as an anachronism for its lack of competence, for its careless discipline, its concealed greediness, its irregular ways, its partisanship and for its absence of spirit of service.
4 Merit Bureaucracy : Merit bureaucracy is a response to the maladies of other types of bureaucracies. In this bureaucracy recruitment is based on qualification and is governed by objective, standards. After entry, status and stability are ensured. In modern times, merit bureaucracy puts strong emphasis on political control over the administrative system which was not the case in other forms of bureaucracy. This bureaucracy has a distinguished advantage over others due to its sense of rationality in administrative behaviour.
MALADIES OF BUREAUCRACY:
Bureaucracy has both positive and negative connotations. The critics argue that bureaucracy is an ailment of organisation. It gives rise to certain tendencies which may pervert its very performance. For example, hierarchy discourages initiative. It divides organisation into layers and leads to red-tapism and inefficiency. It is often criticised as having a detrimental influence upon the performance and behaviour of the civil servants. Thus, bureaucracy apart from being considered as an aspect of modern administration and rational structure, also has retain negative features. Some of these criticisms are that it is unresponsive to popular demands and desires, undue formalism, self-aggrandisement, empire building, conservatism, etc. Other maladies attributed are arrogance, self-satisfaction, obsession with rules and routine, rigidity, indifference to democratic processes and ignoring the human element in administrative behavior.
Bureaucracy has both positive and negative connotations. The critics argue that bureaucracy is an ailment of organisation. It gives rise to certain tendencies which may pervert its very performance. For example, hierarchy discourages initiative. It divides organisation into layers and leads to red-tapism and inefficiency. It is often criticised as having a detrimental influence upon the performance and behaviour of the civil servants. Thus, bureaucracy apart from being considered as an aspect of modern administration and rational structure, also has retain negative features. Some of these criticisms are that it is unresponsive to popular demands and desires, undue formalism, self-aggrandisement, empire building, conservatism, etc. Other maladies attributed are arrogance, self-satisfaction, obsession with rules and routine, rigidity, indifference to democratic processes and ignoring the human element in administrative behavior.
SUMMERY:
We have seen the origin of the term bureaucracy and its varied meanings. It is used to signify a polity, as an organisation, as a society, as office holders, as inefficiency, as rational organisation, as an ideal construct and as an exercise of power by a body of officials. We have distinguished between four types of bureaucracy viz., guardian, patronage, caste and merit. We have also seen that bureaucracy suffers from many maladies like unresponsiveness, inflexibility, obsession for precedents and emphasis on rules and regulations to the neglect of societal demands.
KEY WORDS:
Elusive : Difficult to catch
Encompass : Surround or contain
Genesis : Origin or mode of formation or generation
Maladies : Ailments
Perverse : Deliberately deviating from what is regarded as normal
Protege : A person to whom another is protector or patron
Self-aggrandisement : increasing one's power, rank or wealth.
We have seen the origin of the term bureaucracy and its varied meanings. It is used to signify a polity, as an organisation, as a society, as office holders, as inefficiency, as rational organisation, as an ideal construct and as an exercise of power by a body of officials. We have distinguished between four types of bureaucracy viz., guardian, patronage, caste and merit. We have also seen that bureaucracy suffers from many maladies like unresponsiveness, inflexibility, obsession for precedents and emphasis on rules and regulations to the neglect of societal demands.
KEY WORDS:
Elusive : Difficult to catch
Encompass : Surround or contain
Genesis : Origin or mode of formation or generation
Maladies : Ailments
Perverse : Deliberately deviating from what is regarded as normal
Protege : A person to whom another is protector or patron
Self-aggrandisement : increasing one's power, rank or wealth.
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